BAIF Development Research Foundation

ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE: ALTERNATIVES FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
PROCEEDINGS OF AN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HELD IN PUNE, INDIA, 4-6 NOVEMBER 1997
VOLUME 1: SELECTED PAPERS
FILE 6 OF 9: PART 5: EDUCATION

Key words and phrases:

animal health, community based animal health care, environment, ethnoveterinary medicine, indigenous knowledge, indigenous systems, participation, veterinary

Edited by:
Evelyn Mathias
D.V. Rangnekar
and Constance M. McCorkle
with the assistance of
Marina Martin

Published 1999 by BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, India 1999

BAIF Development Research Foundation
BAIF Bhavan, Dr. Manibhai Desai Nagar
Warje Malewadi (Bombay - Bangalore bypass highway)
Pune 411 029, India
Phone +91-212-365 494, fax: +91-212-366 788

BAIF is a non-political, secular non-governmental organisation involved in livestock development. BAIF's mission is to create opportunities of gainful self-employment for rural families, especially disadvantaged sections, ensuring sustainable livelihood, enriched environment, improved quality of life and good human health. This will be achieved through development research, effective use of local resources, extension of appropriate technologies and upgradation of skills and capabilities with community participation.

Correct citation:
Mathias, E., D.V. Rangnekar, and C.M. McCorkle. 1999. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Alternatives for Livestock Development. Proceedings of an International Conference held in Pune, India, on November 4-6, 1997. Volume 1: Selected Papers. BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, India.

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CONTENTS
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Part 5: Education

A survey of the current status of ethnoveterinary medicine in veterinary training and research institutions around the world and its implications
Denis Fielding

Cognitive domain and acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists
Basavaprabhu Jirli, Prabhat Kumar Jha, and Madhukar Chugh

Perceptions of veterinarians on ethnoveterinary medicine
R. Sabarinathan Nair, S. V. N. Rao, and S. Ramkumar

PART V: EDUCATION

A survey of the current status of ethnoveterinary medicine in veterinary training and research institutions around the world and its implications

Denis Fielding

Introduction

Amongst the growing number of those knowledgeable about ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) there is little need to stress its current contribution and apparent potential. But, if it is to achieve the attention it justifies on the basis of this potential and on its current level of usage by livestock owners, it needs to achieve a greater status and credibility amongst professionals working in the field of animal health. These include veterinarians and animal scientists, who are in a position to integrate EVM with other methods of optimising animal production. The mindsets and attitudes of such professionals are strongly influenced by their professional training. Students, not surprisingly, tend to adopt the views and attitudes of their lecturers and professors. If they are 'trained' to ignore or ridicule EVM by their teachers, then we should not be surprised if indeed they do ignore and/or ridicule EVM in their professional lives. But, the converse situation is also true if we can produce graduates with open minds who are prepared to record and evaluate EVM on its merits and where appropriate to integrate it into animal production programmes.

If we are going to influence the attitudes of teachers and researchers towards EVM, and thereby the attitudes of their future students, the only sensible starting point is to determine what are their current attitudes and activities regarding this subject. This then was the objective of the survey reported below. In order to achieve global coverage quickly and at reasonable cost, the only feasible method was a postal survey. Such a survey was therefore undertaken involving 385 veterinary training and research institutions around the world based on addresses available in the World Veterinary Directory, 1991 (Anon. 1991).

The survey

The survey consisted of 21 questions on various aspects of EVM. In the introduction of the questionnaire it was explained that the result would be anonymously reported at this conference. The survey was prepared in English and tested on one Kenyan veterinarian working at the Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine (CTVM), Edinburgh. It was then translated into French and Spanish for use when these languages were obviously the most appropriate for the country in question. The survey questionnaires were sent with a covering letter to the heads of the various institutions, who were asked to have them completed by the most appropriate person.

In the introduction to the questionnaire EVM was defined according to the definition of Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle (1989), namely, the folk beliefs, knowledge, skills and methods and practices pertaining to the healthcare of animals. Responders were asked to think of EVM as mainly involving medicinal plants although they were invited to report spiritual aspects if they so wished.

The questions in the survey covered the following subject areas:

  1. discipline of the responder and personal involvement of the responder in EVM;
  2. current trends in the attitudes of the responder's colleagues to EVM;
  3. current trends in the attitudes of farmers in the responder's country to EVM;
  4. existence of associations/societies concentrating on EVM;
  5. an example of an EVM practice known to the responder;
  6. teaching of, and research on EVM, both current and anticipated;
  7. most common arguments for and against giving greater attention to EVM;
  8. assistance required if any to advance EVM as a subject;
  9. appropriateness of giving greater attention to EVM;
  10. volunteered comments.

Results

Postal surveys even within country are notorious for low responses, e.g., 10 - 20%. By December 31st, 1997, 67 (17%) of the EVM questionnaires had been returned. The modest response is to some extent offset by the fact that of the 67 returns 38 were from different countries. Furthermore, the responders were a specific group of people who were in a position to have the necessary knowledge to answer the survey questions accurately. However, the limitations of the survey are acknowledged and the results are reported with the awareness of these limitations.

Results by subject area

The quality of completion of the questionnaires varied widely. Some were completed in a very dismissive way and obviously with little thought and with few questions answered. Others were completed very fully. The latter were usually from the poorest countries and the furthest from Europe.

Subject area 1. Discipline of the responder and personal involvement of the responder in EVM

The questionnaires were completed by people of many veterinary related professions with only three responders, one from Mongolia and two from the Philippines, reporting that they were teachers of EVM. Twenty-six (39%) of the responders reported some personal interest/involvement in EVM.

Subject area 2. Current trends in the attitudes of the responder's colleagues to EVM

Twenty-six (39%) reported that interest in EVM amongst colleagues was increasing whilst 22 (33%) reported no change, others did not know or failed to respond. ('Don't knows' and failure to respond are not enumerated or reported below.) The typical reasons given for increasing interest in EVM, as far as possible in the responders' own words, were as follows:

  • livestock owners depend on EVM and it has some effect;
  • because of public opinion;
  • colleagues asking for information, EVM is a link with the past;
  • interest in alternatives and shift of focus in priorities;
  • danger of loss of knowledge;
  • modern (drugs) sometimes fail (EVM) has an effect, e.g., mastitis;
  • increasing international attention to natural resources;
  • government financial support for EVM;
  • avoids antibiotic resistance;
  • natural, no residues (stated twice);
  • receiving government recognition;
  • because it (EVM) is natural (stated twice);
  • expense of modern drugs (stated twice);
  • (EVM) is rich and little studied;
  • very diverse;
  • farmers like to use plants;
  • effectivity (stated twice);
  • because some of the medicines are simple and can be used by farmers.

The typical reasons given for no change in the level of interest in EVM were:

  • lack of knowledge (to make a decision);
  • no exposure during training (stated twice);
  • no interest (stated twice);
  • lack of scientific basis (stated twice);
  • not until proven;
  • incomplete knowledge.

Only 6 (9%) reported a decreasing interest in EVM mainly because of 'ineffectiveness'.

Subject area 3. Current trends in the attitudes of farmers in the responder's country to EVM

Nineteen (28%) reported that interest in EVM amongst farmers was increasing whilst 13 (19%) reported it was decreasing and 21 (31%) reported no change. The typical reasons given, as far as possible in the responders' own words, were as follows:

Increasing

  • cost of western medicines (mentioned four times);
  • cost effectiveness;
  • poor infrastructure (modern drugs unavailable);
  • abundant plants;
  • privatisation;
  • poor access, availability (to modern medicines);
  • medicinal plants available;
  • cheaper;
  • less toxic, fewer side effects;
  • can be done without continuous veterinary supervision and is good first-aid.

Decreasing

  1. no teaching of EVM;
  2. extension workers usually teach importance of modern drugs;
  • not promoted;
  • farmers rely on modern methods for profit;
  • not seen as desirable;
  • because of availability of new drugs.

Not changing

  • lack of knowledge;
  • not until proven;
  • no exposure;
  • no interest;
  • no interest;
  • lack of scientific basis.

Subject area 4. Existence of associations/societies concentrating on EVM

Associations/societies concentrating on EVM were reported in 14 countries: Poland, Sudan, India, South Africa, Mongolia, Spain, Ukraine, Guatemala, Brazil, Argentina, Morocco, Vietnam, Republic of Guinea, and the Philippines.

Subject area 5. An example of an EVM practice known to the responder

The majority of the reported EVM practices were centred on plant medicines for chronic conditions such as digestive disorders and parasitism and for wound treatment.

Subject area 6. Teaching of, and research on EVM, both current and anticipated

Only 6 (9%) reported the existence of specific courses/units or modules on EVM in their institutions, in Mongolia, Romania, Spain, Republic of Guinea, and in the Philippines two.

Fourteen (21%) reported that reference to EVM was included in their undergraduate curricula. Ten (15%) also reported EVM in their postgraduate curricula, in Pakistan, Slovakia, Mongolia, Spain, France, Philippines, and Brazil. Fifteen (22%) reported that greater attention to EVM in their curricula was planned. Several responders indicated that EVM was referred to in subjects such as toxicology, pharmacology, and the history of veterinary medicine.

Eleven PhD and 15 MSc projects on aspects of EVM were reported as being underway in nine countries: Romania, Mongolia, Portugal, Ecuador, Spain, Brazil, India, Ukraine, and Morocco. Eighteen (27%) indicated that research on EVM by members of staff was underway in their establishments.

If there was to be increased teaching of EVM, only four responders thought that there should be special courses on EVM within the curriculum. With these exceptions the majority believed that EVM should be internalised in all courses.

Subject area 7. Most common arguments for and against giving greater attention to EVM

Typical arguments amongst colleagues for giving greater attention to EVM, as far as possible in the responders' own words, were as follows:

  • need to understand EVM – poor veterinary structure and cost of medicines;
  • maintain tradition;
  • if used (by farmers) must be given attention (mentioned four times);
  • so that graduates are aware;
  • more readily available and cheaper (than modern methods) (stated twice);
  • plants are the basis of modern medicine;
  • thought provoking and interesting to look at past;
  • farmers are poor;
  • young staff know least about it;
  • no side-effects;
  • increasing drug resistance;
  • simple and effective.

Typical arguments amongst colleagues for giving less attention to EVM, as far as possible in the responders' own words were as follows:

  • no need to go back to traditional things;
  • witchery;
  • don't want to be a laughing stock;
  • primitive;
  • little research to support it (EVM);
  • not effective;
  • not on the agenda;
  • nobody believes (in EVM);
  • no scientific evidence (mentioned six times);
  • lack of confidence in effectiveness;
  • little evidence – no better than witchcraft;
  • little knowledge, plants are declining in abundance (stated twice);
  • old fashioned and not without side effects;
  • easier to use modern drugs;
  • not standardised;
  • lack of information.

Subject area 8. Assistance required, if any, to advance EVM as a subject

When asked what assistance was required to progress/promote research and/or teaching in EVM, the following responses were given:

  • money for transport (mentioned twice);
  • field presence;
  • seminars/workshops (mentioned four times);
  • finance, books;
  • sample curriculum, training in use of medicinal plants;
  • course modules, books, articles and videos (mentioned three times);
  • solid scientific profile;
  • learning packages, training course;
  • better equipment and contacts (mentioned four times);
  • funds for scholarships (mentioned twice);
  • literature and foreign contacts;
  • training, establishment of centre of EVM;
  • positive decision;
  • training, more information, some sort of grant;
  • more knowledge (mentioned three times) ;
  • change of mentality;
  • grants to document ethnoveterinary practices;
  • funds for plants;
  • assistance, especially from Africa and Asia;
  • supply of plants.

Subject area 9. Appropriateness of giving greater attention to EVM

Forty-eight (72%) thought it would be appropriate to give greater attention to EVM whilst 7 (10%) thought it would be a backward step.

Subject area 10. Volunteered comments

The following general comments, as far as possible in the responders' own words, were volunteered:

  • there are large amounts of (EVM) knowledge;
  • we need monitoring and co-ordination;
  • need to find explanation (for EVM) things that seem to work;
  • some have curative properties – need to test;
  • all should be used;
  • important to preserve the environment;
  • phytotherapy is good;
  • EVM is cheaper;
  • we need more knowledge (about EVM);
  • there is a lack of knowledge (about EVM);
  • promoters of EVM are evangelistic rather than professional;
  • it is common in villages;
  • important points should be documented and brought to notice of veterinarians;
  • small booklet (needed) with proper doses and side-effects for reference;
  • growing interest (use of plants) in human medicine;
  • we don't realise farmers have knowledge;
  • farmers will accept things based on their beliefs;
  • may be only method for geriatric and hypersensitive animals;
  • should be included in veterinary curriculum;
  • good support for self-sufficiency.

Discussion of the survey results

The survey provided a measure of the interest in EVM, 83% of those receiving questionnaires failed to return them! This must be taken to some extent as a measure of the overall low level of interest in EVM.

However, from amongst the survey replies the following main points arise. Current teaching and research centred on EVM is at a low level. But, it appears that the situation is changing as a growing interest in EVM amongst professionals was identified. Perhaps of equal importance was the widespread belief that giving greater attention to EVM was 'appropriate'. The reasons for this positive attitude to EVM were because in summary:

  • farmers are using it;
  • modern methods are sometimes unavailable or have limitations;
  • a belief that 'there is something in EVM' that needs to be explored and because of a general change in public opinion towards 'alternatives', 'nature' and 'the environment'.

The majority of responses highlighted the need for more scientific evidence and information on the biological effectiveness of EVM.

Implications for the future

The flow of information on EVM is increasing with regional and country studies, e.g., Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Kenya (ITDG and IIRR 1996), but clearly there is enormous scope for further work in this area. There is a need perhaps for a low cost practical journal to document networking activities. A draft curriculum could and perhaps should be assembled as a basis for discussion. Conferences such as this and regional and country workshops are other possibilities that in themselves give increased status to EVM. But, and very importantly, such activities and documentation can only go so far if they only record and disseminate current, for the most part objectively unevaluated practices. There may also be dangers in repeating and disseminating what has no known basis for being effective. Thus, until EVM is supported by quantitative studies of an internationally accepted standard, it will not make any lasting impact in veterinary research/training institutions.

The range in the variety of EVM treatments and practices available is enormous. Given that resources are always going to be limited, any work on evaluation should start on 'best bets', those most likely to be effective and which have the greatest potential for being transferred to other livestock owners. It seems that medicinal plants with the potential for treating chronic conditions such as parasitism are the priority for evaluation studies. The stages in a 'best bet approach' involving potential anthelmintic plants are as follows:

  • Participatory survey to identify/confirm the plants being most used in the locality concerned and their methods of use.
  • Collection and botanical identification of plants.
  • Literature review of any past work on medicinal aspects of the plants.
  • Monitored on-farm trial using and learning the methods employed by farmers.
  • If probability of effective action is confirmed from the above, then move to controlled, standardised testing in laboratory/station conditions but maintaining contact with those experienced in using the plants.

The standardisation would need to be of a high order involving as far possible specified numbers of animals, levels of helminth infections, the agents/plants being investigated and their preparation, laboratory techniques to be used and the length of the study. Such testing should confirm or deny the presence of effective anthelmintic agents and remove the medicinal uncertainty surrounding so many plants. For example, Hammond, Fielding, and Bishop (1997) on the basis of a literature review suggested that Mallotus philippensis, widely used in Asia, could be effective as a broad spectrum anthelmintic. Following an actual evaluation of the dried powdered fruit of this plant, termed 'kamala', Jost et al. (1996) concluded that a particular sample of the dried fruit was ineffective against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats indigenous to Balochistan, Pakistan.

There is an accepted protocol for evaluating the efficacy of synthetic anthelmintics (Wood et al. 1995). It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that an equivalent protocol, or even the same one, is needed for the standardised evaluation of medicinal plants. But, it should be remembered that many international drug companies already have on-going programmes for screening plants for medicinal properties. Should requests be made to such companies to make their findings more widely available so as to avoid wasted effort in discovering what the drug companies already know?

It is appreciated that there are spiritual aspects associated with much EVM. At the present time it is impossible to investigate these if indeed they should be investigated. It is difficult and costly enough to carry out definitive evaluation trials with purified synthetic drugs. It is more difficult, some would even say practically impossible, to carry out definitive trials of global significance with whole plants, as suggested above – because of the introduction of so many additional sources of variation. It is thus totally impossible to envisage including at the present time any investigation of any spiritual factors.

Conclusions

The survey reported here, with all its limitations, achieved a number of things:

  • it alerted 385 people in veterinary training and research institutions around the world to this conference and hopefully prompted them to reflect on EVM;
  • it identified a trend of increasing interest in EVM and a view amongst professional veterinarians and animal scientists that more attention to EVM was 'appropriate', especially regarding quantitative evaluation of EVM practices;
  • it identified particular people, albeit relatively few, with a real interest in EVM that may be drawn upon in the future. This was very reassuring, at least to the author!

It is concluded that the comment of one responder that the promoters of EVM are 'evangelical rather than professional' is one that should be taken account of in the future if greater recognition of EVM is to be achieved.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are expressed to the colleagues around the world who took the time to complete and return the 67 questionnaires.

References

Anon. 1991. World Veterinary Directory, 1991. Edited by the World Veterinary Association in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, the World Health Organisation and the International Office of Epizootics. WVA , Madrid, Spain.

Mathias-Mundy, E. and C. M. McCorkle. 1989. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change, No 6. Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011. USA.

Hammond, J. A., D. Fielding and S. C. Bishop. 1997. Prospects for plant anthelmintics in tropical veterinary medicine. Veterinary Research Communications 21:213-228.

ITDG and IIRR. 1996. Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Kenya: A Field Manual of Traditional Animal Health Care Practices. Intermediate Technology Group and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Nairobi, Kenya.

Jost, C. C., D. M. Sherman, E. F. Thomson, and R. M. Hesselton. 1996. Kamala (Mallotus philippinensis) fruit is ineffective as an anthelmintic against gastro-intestinal nematodes in goats indigenous to Balochistan, Pakistan. Small Ruminant Research 20:147-153.

Wood, I. B., N. K. Amaral, K. Bairden, J. L. Duncan, T. Kassai, J. B. Malone Jr., J. A. Pankavich, R. K. Reinecke, O. Slocombe, S. M. Taylor, and J. Vercruysse. 1995. World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (W.A.A.V.P.) second edition of guidelines for evaluating the efficacy of anthelmintics in ruminants (bovine, ovine, caprine). Veterinary Parasitology 58:181-213.

Cognitive domain and acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists

Basavaprabhu Jirli, Prabhat Kumar Jha, and Madhukar Chugh

Introduction

Why study ancient traditional animal husbandry practices today? Verma and Singh (1969) answered this with the question "Why is the knowledge of improved practices recommended for different regions of the country inadequate?" The overall adoption of available technologies is only about 30% (Singh 1995). This means that about 70% of the available technologies are accepted only partly or not at all by the farming community. Scientists and extension workers commonly blame reasons such as inadequate and ineffective extension, input supply, credit support, and market infrastructure, and farmers' lethargy and indifference for the knowledge-practice gap.

But at the field level, the important reasons for the low acceptance of technologies lie in the fact that the technologies are not economically viable, not operationally feasible, and not stable. Also, they do not match farmers' needs and are not compatible with the overall farming system (Das 1996).

In the livestock sector, traditional knowledge is preponderant over contemporary innovations. The network of livestock health system is much weaker than that of the human health system, and therefore people have to evolve their own coping strategies. McCorkle (1986) termed peoples' traditional knowledge pertaining to animal health and production 'ethnoveterinary medicine'. This term recognises the cultural context of traditional practices.

Recently, orthodox veterinarians and scientists have begun to recognise the fact that farmers and local healers have a holistic understanding and approach in dealing with disease and other problems that plague livestock production (Toyang et al. 1995). Still the know-how of farmers and local healers has not been used much for development (Mathias 1996). Gupta (1997) calls for blending the formal and organised knowledge system with the informal and unorganised one.

It is the responsibility of the scientific community to lead this process and answer the innumerable questions posed by the peasant community. Scientists should be aware of the facts about ethnoveterinary medicine and should have a favourable attitude towards the same.

This study was undertaken to answer questions like: are veterinarians aware about ethnoveterinary medicine? To what extent do they accept traditional healthcare practices? And what is their perception about these practices?

Methodology

The National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, which is the premier animal science institute under the Indian Council for Agricultural Research, and the Bihar Veterinary College, Patna, at the Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar were purposively selected for the study. From each institution, 15 respondents were selected based on the following criteria:

  • be a postgraduate in veterinary sciences;
  • serve as a scientist or assistant professor in his or her institution.

Prominent ethnoveterinary practices and medicines were selected from authentic sources like published magazines, research papers, etc. and a structured schedule was prepared. For each practice selected, 10 questions were asked to ascertain the respondents' awareness, channels of communication, perception and acceptance of the practices. In another attempt, a set of 15 statements was listed to document the differential perception of scientists regarding ethnoveterinary medicine.

For statistical analysis of the data, frequencies and percentages were calculated.

Results and discussion

Table 1 shows the extent of respondents' awareness of and channels of communication for 12 selected ethnoveterinary practices. More than 50% of the scientists were aware of seven practices. The most well-known practices were feeding mustard cake to induce heat (77%), feeding gur to enhance milk yield (80%), and feeding of 200 ml castor oil or castor seed powder mixed in water for preventing constipation (83%). This indicates that the scientific community is aware of traditional practices. The number of respondents in this study may be small, but also the literature confirms that the scientific community is turning towards non-formal practices. Examples are papers presented by veterinarians at the 'International Conference on Creativity and Innovations at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management' held in Ahmedabad in 1997 (e.g., Chahar and Singh, Rangnekar, Ramachandra et al., Sadaulla et al., Thaker et al., Tripathi et al., and Veena).

Indigenous communication networks played a pivotal role in transferring the knowledge to the animal scientists who were aware of most of the practices listed in the investigation schedule through their parents or grand parents, farmers, friends, and neighbours. This shows that even today at the age of computers and other communication technologies, indigenous communication channels exist and are important. In coming generations they can also not be ignored. This does not mean that formal channels are superfluous – they too have their role to play. However, with respect to ethnoveterinary medicine, formal channels have not been given much attention. Also the scientific community has not made much effort which is evident in the fact that formal communication channels like books, newspapers, and magazines, played a non-significant role in creating awareness among the respondents of this study.

Table 2 depicts the extent of acceptance and opinion regarding adoptability of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists. The majority of the respondents agree that feeding mustard cake for inducing heat, feeding cotton stalk, maize grains, and gur for enhancing milk yield, applying turmeric powder for curing wounds and feeding castor oil for preventing constipation are adoptable. However, regarding the remaining practices only few respondents have a favourable opinion with respect to adoptability.

The majority of the scientists agreed that the adoptable practices did not have any side or ill effects on the production potential of the animal. Regarding the remaining practices, the opinions varied. Nevertheless, the respondents did not give any concrete reason or empirical evidence for side effects of the practices on the production potential. In some cases, they advised to conduct research on this.

With respect to the extent of acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine, animal scientists had a favourable attitude towards most of the practices. They endorsed all the feeding practices such as to enhance milk yield, also, feeding of mustard cake for inducing heat and constipation as well as wound treatments. In some instances when the scientists were not aware of a practice, the practice was described to them and they were requested to judge its acceptability based on their understanding of the practice. This worked well and many scientists had a favourable opinion in most cases. However, nearly all scientists rejected the local cross wood method for castration because they believed that it had a negative effect on the health of the animal and it was a very crude method of castration

Table 3 explains the attributes of ethnoveterinary medicine as perceived by the animal scientists. The scientific validity of the practices like feeding mustard cake to induce heat (57%), feeding of maize grains (63%) and gur (70%) to enhance milk yield, feeding of castor oil or seed powder for preventing constipation (80%) and application of turmeric powder to wounds (60%) was perceived high by the scientists. On the other hand, feeding bamboo leaves for inducing heat, the cross wood method of castration, and treatments of foot and mouth disease and mastitis were found to be scientifically least valid. The respondents' responses for reliability, technical feasibility, economic viability, and sustainability were similar to those for validity. The scientists had not conducted any research or experiments, their conclusions were mainly based on their perceptions. Further, they strongly believed that systematic research should be conducted to confirm the aforesaid attributes.

Table 4 explains the differential perception of animal scientists about ethnoveterinary medicine and indigenous technical knowledge (EVM/ITK). Near all of the scientists (93%) were aware about EVM/ITK. This shows the growing concern of the development personnel towards traditional practices.

More than half of the scientists (64%) are used to go through literature on ITK and EVM. Nowadays a good number of journals on ITK exist and other scientific journals do publish articles on ITK and EVM. The fact that about a third of the respondents is not reading literature on EVM/ITK indicates that it is the selective reading habit which makes them overlook articles on these aspects.

A good number of NGOs are working on the tenets of ITK and sustainable development. But the majority of the scientists (67%) are not aware of this. However, 83% are ready to associate with NGOs and assist them in conserving and conducting research on EVM. This reflects the respondents' favourable attitude towards research and development of EVM and its promotion in the society. Only 24% of the respondents said that they have come across quacks.

A good number of animal scientists (67%) expressed their readiness to document ITK/EVM, at the same time only a small number (27%) had done so in the past. A fair number of animal scientists (73%) had advised ITK/EVM in some cases. In fact, they indicated that it sometimes becomes unavoidable to advise some traditional treatment methods. The majority opined that the results of local treatments are not quick, which is probably the major drawback of using ITK/EVM in animal healthcare.

In the recent past, scientists were bewildered about the scientific validity of EVM/ITK. Today, they are ready to advocate ITK (87%) if the local practices are found scientifically valid. Furthermore, 80% of the respondents are ready to take up research on EVM. The majority of the scientists (83%) opines that EVM/ITK are sustainable. The rationale behind this response may be the spatial and temporal stability, the cost effectiveness, and physical and cultural compatibility of local practices. Furthermore, there is no complexity in application, which is the main constraint for the majority of practices introduced from outside.

The majority of the scientists (73%) are deeply concerned that the knowledge of EVM/ITK is getting eroded. If we do not prevent this erosion, we will suffer a great loss because the local practices can provide easy solutions for complex problems of today. Regarding the conservation of ITK/EVM, 80% of the respondents believe that animal scientists should take initiatives to conserve it. But about as many scientists feel that it is the duty of the government to conserve the traditional knowledge. The scientists unanimously agree that legal protection should be provided to ITK/EVM to prevent the erosion of our traditional knowledge and to strengthen our future knowledge base. If properly exploited, the old knowledge system is a potential source for extending the frontiers of science and technology.

This study infers that the scientific community is becoming aware of the drawbacks and dangers of unprecedented technological advances which have caused ecological and environmental imbalance. In this context, the scientists make up their minds towards exploring alternatives that nature provides for sustainable development based on ethics, environmental soundness, excellence, efficiency, and equity. Hence, government and NGOs should make concerted efforts to exploit the hidden potential of the scientists to achieve sustainable development through indigenous devices.

References

Chahar, L. S. and Lakhan Singh. 1997. Local wisdom in veterinary medicine. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Das, P. 1996. Changing scenario of agricultural economy and future thrusts in extension. Journal of Extension Education, 7(2&3): 1390-1397.

Gupta, A. K. 1997. Designing sustainable institutions for natural resource management: How do we participate in peoples plans and build upon their knowledge systems? Third SummEr Course on Management of Common Property Resources, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, June 4-13 1997.

Mathias, Evelyn. 1996. How can ethnoveterinary medicine be used in field projects? Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor 4(2): 6-7.

McCorkle, C. 1986. An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development. Journal of Ethnobiology 6(1): 129-149.

Ramachandra, K. T., B. Balakrishna, and B. Jirli. 1997. Use of proverbs and idioms in communication of agricultural technologies. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Rangnekar, Sangeeta. 1997. Rural women: Hidden innovators as discovered while studying livestock production. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Sadaullah, M., S. Naz, and M. M. Hossain. 1997. Livestock in rural development and indigenous knowledge for sustainable livestock production in Bangladesh. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Singh, S. P. (1995). Technology Assessment and Refinement through Institution - Village Linkage. Operational Guide, ICAR, New Delhi.

Thaker, A. M., S. K. Bhavsar, J. G. Sarvaiya, B. M. Jani, M. P. Verma, and J. K. Malik. 1997. Ectoparasiticidal activity of Annona squamosa in animals: Clinical and experimental evaluation. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Toyang, N. J., M. Nuwanyakpa, C. Ndi, S. Django, and W. C. Kinyuy. 1995. Ethnoveterinary medicine practices in the north-west province of Cameroon. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor 3(3): 20-22.

Tripathi, Hema, M. K. Mandape, and P. Khandekar. 1997. Traditional veterinary practices in northern plains of UP. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Veena, T. 1997. Punyakoti test to diagnose pregnancy in cattle: An indigenous bioassay based on the ancient Egyptian practice. Paper presented at the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Resource Management, CMA, IIM, Ahmedabad, January 11-14, 1997.

Verma, M. R. and Y. P. Singh. 1969. A plea for studies in traditional animal husbandry. The Allahabad Farmer 43(2): 93-98.

 

Table 1. Extent of awareness and source of communication of ethnoveterinary medicine and practices (n = 30).

Practice

Awareness of practice

Source of communication

Parents/ grandparents

Friends/ relatives

Newspapers/magazines

Farmers

%

%

%

%

%

To induce heat

          
  • One seed of Semicarpus anacardium fed per day for 3 days and 250 g sprouted wheat per day for 15 days

40

10

17

3

17
  • Feeding mustard cake

77

30

17

7

23
  • Feeding bamboo leaves

37

10

10

7

7

To enhance milk yield

          
  • In drought-prone areas, feeding cotton stalk + molasses and salt

50

10

20

7

17
  • Feeding maize grains

63

17

17

13

17
  • Feeding gur

80

20

13

17

30

Management & healthcare

          
  • Castration: Cross wood

33

3

13

7

7
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Fluid extract of bark of Dalbergia sisso (sisam) used to wash wounds

37

13

17

-

7
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Kerosene applied in the cleft of the hooves

53

7

30

10

14
  • Mastitis: Pellet of camphor fed to animal along with banana

43

-

30

-

13
  • Constipation: 200 ml castor oil/castor seed powder mixed with water and fed to animal

83

3

13

37

30
  • Wound: Turmeric powder heated in ghee and applied

67

10

30

10

17

 

Table 2. Extent of acceptance and opinion regarding adoptability of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists (n = 30).

Practice

Adoptability

Side/ill effects

Extent of acceptance

Great extent

Less extent

Not at all

%

%

%

%

%

To induce heat

          
  • One seed of Semicarpus anacardium fed per day for 3 days and 250 g sprouted wheat per day for 15 days

37

33

30

7

7
  • Feeding mustard cake

70

60

40

23

7
  • Feeding bamboo leaves

30

20

17

7

13

To enhance milk yield

          
  • In drought-prone areas, feeding cotton stalk + molasses and salt

50

53

40

17

7
  • Feeding maize grains

63

60

43

20

-
  • Feeding gur

70

70

40

30

3

Management & healthcare

          
  • Castration: Cross wood

13

10

3

7

23
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Fluid extract of bark of Dalbergia sisso (sisam) used to wash wounds

37

33

13

20

10
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Kerosene applied in the cleft of the hooves

47

37

23

20

10
  • Mastitis: Pellet of camphor fed to animal along with banana

37

30

13

20

10
  • Constipation: 200 ml castor oil/castor seed powder mixed with water and fed to animal

83

77

47

33

3
  • Wound: Turmeric powder heated in ghee and applied

63

60

43

17

7

 

Table 3. Perception of animal scientists regarding the attributes ethnoveterinary medicine (n = 30).

Practice

Validity

Reliability

Technical

feasibility

Economic

viability

Sustain-

ability

%

%

%

%

%

To induce heat

          
  • One seed of Semicarpus anacardium fed per day for 3 days and 250 g sprouted wheat per day for 15 days

33

33

37

37

37
  • Feeding mustard cake

57

57

67

67

63
  • Feeding bamboo leaves

13

17

27

30

27

To enhance milk yield

          
  • In drought-prone areas, feeding cotton stalk + molasses and salt

43

40

50

47

40
  • Feeding maize grains

63

63

60

63

63
  • Feeding gur

70

67

73

70

70

Management & healthcare

          
  • Castration: Cross wood

7

7

10

20

10
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Fluid extract of bark of Dalbergia sisso (sisam) used to wash wounds

23

27

27

33

30
  • Foot-and-mouth disease: Kerosene applied in the cleft of the hooves

27

33

37

47

33
  • Mastitis: Pellet of camphor fed to animal along with banana

27

33

33

33

33
  • Constipation: 200 ml castor oil/castor seed powder mixed with water and fed to animal

80

80

83

80

77
  • Wound: Turmeric powder heated in ghee and applied

60

67

67

67

67

Table 4. Differential perception of animal scientists regarding ethnoveterinary medicines and practices.

Statements

NDRI, Karnal (n=15)

BVC, Patna (n=15)

Total (n=30)

 

%

%

%
  1. I know some of the ethnoveterinary medicines (EVM)/indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)

86

100

93
  • I have read articles about EVM/ITK
    		•

    54

    73

    64
  • I know some NGOs working on EVM/ITK
    		•

    26

    40

    33
  • I came to know about EVM through a quack
    		•

    14

    34

    24
  • I would like to document EVM/ITK
    		•

    54

    80

    67
  • I have documented some EVM/ITK
    		•

    14

    40

    27
  • I have advised EVM in some cases
    		•

    66

    80

    73
  • I am prepared advocate EVM if found scientifically valid
    		•

    87

    87

    87
  • I agree that EVM are sustainable
    		•

    73

    94

    83
  • I fell Indian traditional knowledge related to EVM/ITK is being eroded
    		•

    86

    60

    73
  • I strongly fell that all animal scientists should take initiative to conserve EVM/ITK
    		•

    94

    66

    80
  • I feel that it is the duty of the government to conserve EVM resources
    		•

    73

    100

    87
  • I would like to conduct systematic study/ research on EVM
    		•

    73

    87

    80
  • I would like to be associated with an NGO to assist them in conserving/conducting research on EVM
    		•

    80

    87

    83
  • I feel that indigenous EVM should be legally protected

    • 80

    94

    87

    Perceptions of veterinarians on ethnoveterinary medicine

    R. Sabarinathan Nair, S. V. N. Rao, and S. Ramkumar

    Introduction

    With increasing awareness of the limitations and hazards of modern agriculture, a growing number of researchers began to recognise traditional or indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) as a major untapped resource for sustainable agriculture. ITK has evolved through observation, trial and error, perfecting techniques based on the experiences gathered through experimentation, and handing the resulting information down from one generation to the next. Many indigenous methods are time-tested, environmentally friendly, cost effective, readily available, and location specific. Indigenous practices to solve the problems associated with animal health form 'ethnoveterinary medicine'.

    To address farmers' problems, we should combine modern technologies and ITK. Because veterinarians are critical in the process of combining modern and ethnoveterinary medicine, we need to ascertain their views on various aspects of ethnoveterinary medicine. Hence, questionnaires were distributed to faculty members engaged in teaching clinical subjects and field veterinarians in Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala states. The responses from 32 veterinarians were analysed and the findings are reported.

    Profile of the respondents

    The majority of the respondents were postgraduates (84%) and worked as faculty members (81%) in veterinary colleges (Table 1). About 70% of them had more than 10 years of experience. The percentage of respondents who resorted to ethnoveterinary medicine at one or the other occasions while treating animals was fairly high (69%). There were 10 respondents who never tried ethnoveterinary medicine in their career (Table 2).

    Perceptions on ethnoveterinary medicine

    Various indigenous materials were tried as treatments for diseases and ailments in animals including dermatitis, simple indigestion, diarrhoea, maggot wounds, cough, wounds, udder oedema, retention of placenta, liver disorder, worm infestation, and pyrexia (Table 3). In fact veterinarians resorted to indigenous medicines to treat a number of ailments depending upon their experience and place of working. From this it is evident that veterinarians did not rely entirely on modern medicine to treat animal diseases.

    When asked for the reasons for resorting to the ethnoveterinary medicine, many respondents indicated that it was cheap and the required ingredients were locally available (Table 4). Some of them were also of the opinion that the indigenous medicines have no side effects and were less toxic. Other reasons include easy application, effectiveness, and 'hastens natural process'. Many of the veterinarians opined that the livestock owners were satisfied with ethnoveterinary medicine mainly because the treatment is economical and the required ingredients are easily available in the village itself (Table 5). In addition, the treatment of animals with ethnoveterinary medicine is safe and avoids side effects.

    The respondents said that some farmers did not like their animals to be subjected to ethnoveterinary medicine because they want quick relief from the ailment which they feel is possible only with modern medicine. Other reasons include that it involves lot of manual work and that it takes longer time to prepare indigenous medicines, and ethnoveterinary medicine is not effective in complicated cases (Table 6).

    The disadvantages in using indigenous medicines as expressed by the veterinarians were the lack of scientific proof about their efficacy, the longer time needed in preparation of these medicines, limited availability of ingredients, and their ineffectiveness in emergency or acute cases (Table 7).

    As many as 23 respondents consider ethnoveterinary medicine reasonably important in the treatment of animal diseases (Table 8). There were seven respondents who thought that ethnoveterinary medicine has little or no importance at all in veterinary medicine. However, the majority of the respondents (78%) were in favour of including this subject in the course curriculum of the bachelor of veterinary sciences (B.V.Sc.) and animal husbandry (AH) programme (Table 9). Many respondents were also of the opinion that a lot of research has to be done to ascertain the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ethnoveterinary medicines before introducing them in course curricula.

    Conclusions

    Opinions differ about the use of ethnoveterinary medicine and its contribution to animal health, especially in villages where the infrastructure for modern medicine is poorly developed. It is also appreciated that there are many dark areas as far as the use of ethnoveterinary medicine is concerned, especially in terms of its effectiveness. It is high time that all those indigenous medicines and practices which are time-tested are documented and subjected to on-farm trials. In addition it is necessary to know the drug activity of indigenous medicines and their efficacy in the treatment of ailments before they are introduced into the course curriculum of the B.V.Sc. and AH programme. A sustained effort on the part of policy makers, researchers, extensionists, and livestock owners is needed to preserve this wisdom before it is entirely lost.

     

    Table 1. Profile of the respondents (n = 32).

       

    No. of respondents

    Experience in years

    < 5 years

    5
     

    5-10 years

    4
     

    11-20 years

    7
     

    > 20 years

    16
         

    Qualification

    B.V.Sc.

    5
     

    M.V.Sc.

    17
     

    Ph.D.

    10
         

    Job specialisation

    Field veterinarians

    6
     

    Teaching faculty

    26

     

    Table 2. Frequency of using ethnoveterinary medicine.

    Frequency of use

    No. of respondents

    Never

    10

    Rarely

    6

    Occasionally

    15

    Frequently

    1

     

    Table 3. Diseases for which ethnoveterinary medicine was tried.

    Disease

    Frequency

    Dermatitis

    13

    Simple indigestion

    8

    Diarrhoea

    7

    Maggot wound

    7

    Cough

    6

    Wound

    5

    Udder oedema

    5

    Retention of placenta

    4

    Liver disorder

    4

    Worm infestation

    4

    Pyrexia

    4

    Inflammation

    4

    Respiratory disorder

    3

    Urinary tract infection

    3

    Syngamiasis

    3

    Enteritis

    2

    Mastitis

    2

    Fracture

    2

    Diabetes mellitus

    2

    Jaundice

    2

    Ruminal atony

    2

    Lameness

    2

    Bloat

    2

    Anorexia

    2

     

    Table 4. Advantages in using ethnoveterinary medicine.

    Advantages

    No. of respondents1

    Cheap and economical

    23

    Locally and easily available

    16

    No side effects

    7

    Less toxic

    5

    Easy application

    4

    Effective

    3

    Hastens the natural process

    2

    Helps when animal is immobile

    1

    Where modern veterinary assistance is not available

    1

    Treatment at farmers' residence

    1

    Satisfies the animal owner

    1

    Technical person is not required

    1

    Less risk

    1

    1The total is >32 because multiple responses were possible.

    Table 5. Reasons for farmers' satisfaction.

    Reasons

    No. of respondents

    Economical

    11

    Easily available

    6

    No side effects

    4

    Easy to administer

    2

    Farmers feel more "at home" when veterinarians resort to ethnoveterinary medicine

    1

    Treatment at farmers' residence saves money and time especially when animal is immobile

    1

    Information about modern medicines has not reached the farming community

    1

    Farmers have knowledge about local medicines and feel safe in using them

    1

     

    Table 6. Reasons for farmers' dissatisfaction.

    Reasons

    No. of respondents

    Farmers want quick relief

    2

    Lot of manual work for preparation of local medicines and difficulties in administering them

    1

    Difficult to prepare and takes longer time to see its response

    1

    Not effective in complicated cases

    1

     

    Table 7. Disadvantages of using ethnoveterinary medicine.

    Disadvantages

    No. of respondents

    Lack of scientific proof about the effect of local medicines

    10

    Takes more time for preparation of medicine

    8

    Limited availability of ingredients

    4

    Not effective in acute and emergency cases

    3

    Effect is unknown

    3

    Cannot replace allopathy completely

    2

    No life saving drugs

    1

    No disadvantages

    1

    Table 8. Importance of ethnoveterinary medicine.

    Opinion

    No. of respondents

    Great importance

    2

    Reasonable importance

    23

    Little importance

    5

    No importance

    2

     

    Table 9. Suggestions on ethnoveterinary medicine.

    Suggestions

    No. of respondents

    Guest lectures should be invited on ethnoveterinary medicine and it should be encouraged

    13

    Selected cheap medicines may be included in B.V.Sc. curriculum

    3

    Active ingredients and the mode of action should be ascertained

    3

    Can be improved by screening the specific effects of local ingredients

    2

    B.V.Sc. curriculum should be revised and ethnoveterinary medicine included

    2

    Should not be encouraged as it will have negative effects

    1

    No comments

    8