PROCEEDINGS OF AN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HELD IN PUNE, INDIA, 4-6 NOVEMBER 1997
VOLUME 1: SELECTED PAPERS: 9 FILES:
Summary of contents, Preface, Acknowledgements
Introduction & Part 1: Applied studies of ethnoveterinary systems
Part 2: Validation of Ethnoveterinary Medicine
Part 3: Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and plant medicines
Part 4: Application of ethnoveterinary medicine
Part 5: Education
Annexes
Tables 1-4 from Paper 'Scope of homoeopathy in veterinary practice', Part 4
Table 'Ethnoveterinary Projects' from Annexes
VOLUME 2: ABSTRACTS: 1 FILE:
Abstracts (this file)
Edited by:
with the assistance of
Marina Martin
Published 1998 by BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, India 1998
BAIF Development Research Foundation
BAIF Bhavan, Dr. Manibhai Desai Nagar
Warje Malewadi (Bombay - Bangalore bypass highway)
Pune 411 029, India
Phone +91-212-365 494, fax: +91-212-366 788
BAIF is a non-political, secular non-governmental organisation involved in livestock development. BAIF's mission is to create opportunities of gainful self-employment for rural families, especially disadvantaged sections, ensuring sustainable livelihood, enriched environment, improved quality of life and good human health. This will be achieved through development research, effective use of local resources, extension of appropriate technologies and upgradation of skills and capabilities with community participation.
Correct citation:
Mathias, E., D.V. Rangnekar, and C.M. McCorkle. 1998. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Alternatives for Livestock Development. Proceedings of an International Conference held in Pune, India, on November 4-6, 1997. Volume 2: Abstracts. BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, India.
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CONTENTS
Click on title to go to relevant section.
Note: Ctrl+Home should return you to the start of this document from anywhere within it.
List of abstracts
Preface
The conference
The proceedings
Acknowledgements
Financial support
Organisation
Abstracts
Authors and participants
Healers
Abbreviations and acronyms
LIST OF ABSTRACTS
Click on name to go to full abstract.
1. Profile of ethnoveterinary care of livestock in southwestern Nigeria
2. Traditional treatment methods of camels in Sudan4. Ethnoveterinary research and development (ER&D) in South Asia - an overview
6. Farmers' perception of ethnoveterinary medicine
7. Herbalism in northern states of the Sudan
8. Laboratory trials on the efficacy of indigenous acaricides on Boophilus decoloratus in Cameroon
10. Importance of indigenous knowledge of animal husbandry for development
11. Farmer participatory research on ethnoveterinary practices: approaches and experiences
12. Studies on wound healing activity of Prosopis juliflora leaf juice
13. Effects of Nutrospel and oxytetracycline in hypogammaglobulinaemic calves
14. Scientific evidence of efficacy of medicinal plants for animal treatment
16. Prevention of ketosis in cows with polyherbal preparation
17. Ethnoveterinary medicine for dairy cows
18. Comparative evaluation of herbal anthelmintics in calves
19. Therapeutic evaluation of crude extracts of indigenous plants against mange of dogs
20. Use of herbal preparations in clinical and sub-clinical mastitis
21. Effect of Annona squamosa seed preparations on house flies
23. Evaluation of indigenous herbs as antitrypanosomal agents
24. Ethnoveterinary medicine and therapeutics: defining their context and potentials
25. Anthelmintic value of Tinospora rumphii
26. Experiences with a mobile field project among camel owners in Kenya
29. Biological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) derivatives in animals
30. Experiences of practising ethnoveterinary medication in villages in Uttar Pradesh
31. Anti-inflammatory activity of Dalbergia sissoo leaves
32. Traditional veterinary practices in rural Medak of Andhra Pradesh
33. Cross-cultural cows: a comparison of conceptions of cattle across time and space
34. Use of ethnoveterinary medicine and western medicine in family-level livestock keeping
36. Ethnomedicinal effect of whey feeding on ascarid infection in buffalo calves
37. Ethnomedicine for ectoparasites in buffaloes: a clinical study on mange dermatitis
38. Indigenous animal health practices in Sri Lanka: extracts from an ancestral palm leaf manuscript
39. Ethnoveterinary medicine for domestic animals
40. Cognitive domain and acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists
42. The use of indigenous veterinary remedies in Malawi
45. Analgesic and therapeutic effects of electroacupuncture in dogs
46. Resuscitation of dogs by electroacupuncture at nasal philtrum point
47. Effective ethnoveterinary practices for treating affections of skin and limbs in large animals
48. Indigenous knowledge of camel production and ethnoveterinary practice among Indian pastoralists
49. Ethnoveterinary bioprospecting and conservation
50. Indigenous technologies for health coverage in sheep
52. Pharmacological effects of Tinospora cordifolia
54. Research and development of ethnoveterinary pharmacology in India - an overview
56. Participatory appraisal and ethnoveterinary medicine
57. Application of ethnoveterinary medicine - where do we stand?
58. Participatory workshops to produce information materials on ethnoveterinary medicine
59. Ethnoveterinary medicine - an overview
60. Effective communication for the promotion of ethnoveterinary medicine
62. Homeopathy in ethnoveterinary medicine (M.R. Pachegaonkar)
63. Traditional knowledge and its application in veterinary medicine by livestock farmers in Kerala
64. Zeetress - a promising antistress and immunomodulator
65. Pharmacological actions of some medicinal plants having uterotonic activity
69. Modern methods in formulation and evaluation of herbal medicine
70. Participatory studies with women on ethnoveterinary practices for livestock health management
71. Studies on the effects of ethnobotanicals on the goat trachea
72. Traditional animal health services: a case study from the Godwara area of Rajasthan
73. Value of camphor for the treatment of blood in milk
74. Ethnoveterinary medicine - a boon for improving the productivity of livestock in rural India
75. Ethnoveterinary medicine for ruminants
76. Scope of homeopathy in veterinary practice
77. Present status of ethnoveterinary research and development
78. Less-known ethnoveterinary uses of plants in India
79. Role of women in ethnoveterinary medicine research, development, and promotion
80. Oral toxicity of oil of Annona squamosa in chicken
81. Therapeutic use of acupuncture in dairy cattle
82. Veterinary medicinal plants of Nandurbar Taluka
83. Holistic approach of treating animals
84. Ethnoveterinary practices among pastoralists of the Indian Thar Desert
85. Ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices in Samburu district of Kenya
88. Present state of ethnoveterinary system in northwestern Bangladesh
Many farmers and livestock raisers throughout the developing world rely on traditional healthcare practices to keep their animals healthy. These indigenous or local practices, or "ethnoveterinary medicine" (EVM), include the use of medicinal plants, surgical techniques, and management practices to prevent and treat a range of livestock diseases.
Ethnoveterinary medicine provides valuable alternatives to and complements western-style veterinary medicine. This is increasingly evident in the West where herbal medicine and other alternative approaches such as acupuncture and homeopathy are becoming mainstream. EVM is of specific value in developing countries where allopathic veterinary medicines are often beyond the reach of livestock producers. It can play an important role in grassroots development which seeks to empower people by enhancing the use of their own knowledge and resources.
Over the last decade, interest in EVM has been rapidly increasing across the disciplines including veterinarians, agriculturalists, social scientists, representatives of dairy farmers' co-operatives and other actors involved in ethnoveterinary research and development (ER&D). But EVM is still under-used in development work. A major reason is the lack of formal links that would allow cross-fertilisation of experience and learning from others' successes and failures.
To bridge this gap, the International Conference on Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Alternatives for Livestock Development was organised. In particular, the conference seeked:
Some 200 delegates attended from India and 20 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas. They came from both non-government organisations (NGOs) and government organisations (GOs) and included veterinarians, animal scientists, veterinary technicians, healers, pharmacologists, ethnobotanists, economists, anthropologists, and sociologists; they were scientists, clinicians, field practitioners, extensionists, representatives of the private sector, and policy makers. About 17% of the participants were women.
The conference was opened and addressed by Dr. A. Ahmed, Vice Chancellor of the Hamdard University in New Delhi and Dr. M.L. Madan, Deputy General Director of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). During the first two days, more than 60 presentations discussed the following aspects of ethnoveterinary medicine:
Comprehensive displays of medicinal plants from India prepared by staff of the Indian organisations SRISTI and ANTHRA, posters, and other exhibits vividly illustrated the multitude and variety of ethnoveterinary systems and practices.
On the second evening, traditional healers from all over India discussed their veterinary practices and provided examples of their remedies.
During the last day, participants split into 10 working groups. These discussed the following topics:
Each group formulated recommendations and action plans for their topic, or discussed specific projects. The outputs of the working groups were presented and discussed during a concluding plenary session.
As a post-conference activity, a two-day workshop to produce a field manual on camel diseases was held. During this workshop, about 20 people from 10 countries compiled and discussed information on selected camel diseases and their conventional and ethnoveterinary treatments. The outputs of this workshop will be published as a manual for NGOs, extension workers, and veterinarians.
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The proceedings of the International Conference on Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Alternatives for Livestock Development are published as two volumes. The first volume includes selected papers, a summary of the discussions of traditional healers, the outputs and recommendations of group workshops, a list of ethnoveterinary projects worldwide, and resources on ethnoveterinary medicine.
This second volume contains abstracts, lists of participants, authors and healers, and an index. The abstracts are arranged alphabetically by first author. To provide an overview as comprehensive as possible on who is doing what in ethnoveterinary medicine, we also decided to include those abstracts that were accepted but whose authors could not come to Pune for various reasons. The section Participants and authors at the end of this volume therefore does not give only names and addresses of participants but also of at least the first author of those abstracts whose authors did not participate. The index only covers this and not the first volume but, because it is based on abstracts of all papers, it can help readers to identify which papers in the first volume may be of interest.
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The conference and production of these proceedings were supported by the following organisations:
Additional support for participants was received by:
The conference was organised by:
The organisers would like to thank the following persons and organisations for their support during the conference preparations and implementation:
The organisers would also like to thank the following organisations for preparing excellent exhibitions of medicinal plants:
1. Profile of ethnoveterinary care of livestock in southwestern Nigeria
I.G. Adeyemi
In southwestern Nigeria, smallscale livestock production prevails and farmers are amenable to ethnoveterinary care because their system is based on low inputs and outputs. However, while in rural areas ethnoveterinary care is the major approach, peri-urban and urban livestock health management uses both modern veterinary and ethnoveterinary medicine.
In recent times, because of scarce foreign exchange and the high cost of modern veterinary services, the proportion of livestock keepers relying on ethnoveterinary medicine for animal health management has been increasing. However, most indigenous animal healthcare practices are curative rather than preventive. In some cases of serious animal health problems, modern drugs prepared for humans are used for treating animals if the symptoms are similar to the disease for which the drug is used for in humans (e.g., diarrhoea). This report discusses the efficacy, acceptability, affordability, and modifications of ethnoveterinary care of animals and its implications on rural livestock development and public health in the region.
Key words: animal healthcare; ethnoveterinary medicine; efficacy; acceptability; Nigeria.
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2. Traditional treatment methods of camels in Sudan
H. Agab
Sudan has a large camel population which is mostly concentrated in the eastern part of the country. There Shukriya, Lahawiyin, Bawadra, Rashaida, and Rufa pastoralists keep camels for meat, milk, wool, hides, riding and racing, transport, traction, oil milling, and drawing water from wells. Surveys show that herders consider diseases as a major constraint to camel production and herd growth. The most common and feared diseases are trypanosomosis, mange, haboub syndrome (a muscoskeletal stiffness of the neck region), internal parasitism, streptothrichosis, contagious skin necrosis, mastitis, camel pox, and wry-neck syndrome. In calves, diarrhoea was the most common problem. Another problem for herders is the lack of adequate veterinary services. Traditional treatment methods include firing, drenching with plant medicines, and the external application of mud. For certain conditions such as lameness and wry-neck syndrome, firing seems to be more successful than modern chemotherapeutics.
Key words: field research; camels; diseases; ethnoveterinary medicine; pastoralists; Shukriya; Lahawiyin; Bawadra; Rashaida; Rufa; Sudan.
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D. Akabwai, T. Leyland, and E. Stem
This paper describes the special characteristics of marginalised pastoralist areas in sub-Saharan Africa. It outlines some of the constraints and problems associated with the current delivery of clinical and vaccination services by government veterinary departments.
The perceptions of livestock herders are examined in terms of their needs, their existing veterinary knowledge, and the current animal health delivery systems. Examples are taken from project work with pastoralist communities in Turkana district of Kenya, the Afar region of Ethiopia, Southern Sudan, the Northwest province of Cameroon, the Salamat region of Chad, and Karamoja district of Uganda.
The paper describes an approach for developing a sustainable animal health delivery system which can incorporate local perceptions and knowledge, local organisational structures, and national or local government. The typical product of this approach is a "privatised pastoral veterinary practice". Advances in the development of the methodology are based on actual project work carried out in marginalised pastoralist areas. The paper discusses alternative approaches and factors which have guided the development. The phases of implementation are described. Specific attention is placed on how to bring about long term incorporation of ethnoveterinary knowledge into the animal health delivery systems. The paper highlights some of the common problems encountered with the approach and suggests issues which need to be addressed in order to ensure privatised pastoral veterinary practices are both attainable and sustainable.
Key words: traditional veterinary knowledge; pastoralists; animal health delivery system; East Africa.
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4. Ethnoveterinary research and development (ER&D) in South Asia - an overview
Jayvir Anjaria
Traditional veterinary practices have been known in Asia for thousands of years. Ancient centres of ethnoveterinary medicine have been in India, Graeco-Arabic countries, and China. Some major traditional veterinary medical systems and practices of global importance have been influenced by the Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani-Tibb systems, Chinese barefoot practitioners, acupuncture, and herbal folklore claims.
Research on medicinal plants is an important facet of biomedical research. A considerable amount of literature on veterinary herbal drug research has been generated: basic research, pharmacological studies, and clinical trials have been conducted to systematise and validate ethnoveterinary practices and folklore claims of herbal drugs with the goal to use them in animal treatment and production. The current state in Asian countries needs to be surveyed. Many of the ethnoveterinary practices are known to be used in several Asian countries, especially in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Cambodia, Laos, and the Philippines. The paper provides an overview of the past, present, and future of ER&D in South Asia.
Key words: ethnoveterinary research and development; Asia.
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ANTHRA
Since May 1996 ANTHRA has been involved in a detailed and extensive research project on traditional veterinary and animal management practices. This has evolved from different rural communities in India. The project especially focuses on gender issues and the role of women in livestock-rearing. Its overall goal is to understand and integrate the beneficial aspects of local knowledge systems and expertise into ongoing livestock development programmes. To understand the differences across agro-ecological zones, this research is being undertaken in six distinct regions of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The study has also tried to reflect the differences across communities, caste of livestock raisers, and between species of livestock reared. Some important features of this study are:
Training of local research workers. Field workers from six community-based organisations have been trained to document local knowledge systems pertaining to animal health and ethnoveterinary practices, animal nutrition, animal breeding, local production systems, and markets. Documentation techniques include written records, case histories, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques, photo-documentation, and herbariums. These field workers have simultaneously been trained on primary veterinary healthcare. Training local research workers has had several advantages:
While documentation has been precise, it has also been slow, as the field workers are documenting and keeping records for the first time, and time schedules for documentation have been difficult to maintain.
Working with local experts. Through the course of this study, local experts in the field of livestock healthcare have been identified who have enabled the documentation process enormously and have given interesting insights. ANTHRA is in the process of compiling a healers' directory.
Taking knowledge back to the community. At the documentation stage, information from the different areas is being shared with the communities through a variety of audiovisual aids. Village yatras and fairs are being organised to share this information.
This project has also helped younger members of the community to appreciate their environment and the biodiversity they have inherited. This could have an extremely positive impact in strengthening rural livelihoods.
Key words: participatory documentation; indigenous knowledge systems; ethnoveterinary medicine; livestock development; healers' directory; training local research workers; India.
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6. Farmers' perception of ethnoveterinary medicine
ANTHRA
The ANTHRA team used questionnaires to interview over 400 farmer families from approximately 54 villages in different parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra on their perceptions of ethnoveterinary medicine. The aim of this research was to study the relevance and relative importance of this system of animal treatment across different regions. Almost all the farmers had used ethnoveterinary treatments at some time for their animals. Specific treatments were identified for at least 46 diseases of livestock including horses and 14 diseases of poultry. Farmers used ethnoveterinary medicine mainly because
The use of ethnoveterinary medicine differed greatly from region to region and even within regions. A comparison of ethnoveterinary knowledge across different groups showed that there were differences between the knowledge of men and women and between younger and older members of the community. Women of the household preferred traditional remedies and were more knowledgeable than men about household medicines for routine diseases, care of young ones, pregnant and lactating animals, and poultry. Traditional animal rearing communities like the Dhangars had more knowledge on surgical conditions like fractures and snake bite. Younger members of the community had neither the knowledge nor the experience to practice ethnoveterinary medicine effectively.
Although a distinct preference to ethnoveterinary medicine was noted, many families also expressed increasing difficulty in practising this type of medicine. The main difficulties were:
Most farmers expressed a desire to learn more about the proper use and application of ethnoveterinary practices as these were economically, socially, and culturally more acceptable for marginalised communities. Farmers suggested some methods for the dissemination of this knowledge.
Key words: ethnoveterinary medicine; farmers' perception; treatment; veterinary medicine; knowledge systems; India.
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7. Herbalism in northern states of the Sudan
Stephen Ashdown
Since 1984, Operation Lifeline Sudan has provided emergency veterinary relief for livestock owners in Sudan. These programs are run by a wide variety of NGOs and a small UNICEF team and have succeeded in establishing an extensive community-based animal health service system. This system operates throughout most of Southern Sudan in rebel-held areas and to a lesser extent in inaccessible regions of government-controlled lands. The development of these community-based services has been founded on training of community members which affirms their own skills and knowledge of disease and adds to their ability to use modern medicines safely and effectively.
In late 1996, the first studies were undertaken to assess the extent of use of herbal medicines and other traditional practices. These studies revealed that there was a considerable knowledge and use of herbs throughout the areas in which the project operated. Shortly after this work in Southern Sudan was completed, work to develop community-based services in government-controlled areas started. From this short experience the knowledge from research in 1996 is compared with information concerning herbal medicine as practised in Khartoum and Northern Towns for both humans and animals. Specific examples are taken from field research in the area of Southern Darfur surrounding the town of Nyala in Western Sudan. In this area Arab tribes are particularly skilled in the use of complex herbal remedies which are often purchased in preference to modern medicines that are available in local pharmacies. Conclusions are drawn in the light of the author's training in herbal medicine and work with alternative practices in the UK. From the author's experience, non-conventional veterinary medical practices can in conjunction with nutritional, husbandry, and environmental improvements provide high quality health cover for domesticated animals. For this reason it is important for livestock owners in such places as Sudan that traditional health practices are understood and incorporated into new health systems. This will be of benefit not only to resource-poor pastoral people but also to those involved in the health sector of richer nations who are looking for new ideas and medicines to improve health services in their own countries.
Key words: pastoralists; ethnoveterinary medicine; herbal remedies; animal health services; Sudan.
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8. Laboratory trials on the efficacy of indigenous acaricides on Boophilus decoloratus in Cameroon
P.H. Bayemi
The efficacy of two indigenous acaricides, Euphorbia cameroonica (kerenahi) and Psorospermum guianensis (sawoiki) on female Boophilus decoloratus ticks was evaluated in the laboratory. Kerenahi sap was used pure, mixed with water, and at 4% and 8% concentrations with palm oil. Sawoiki sediment was used at 2%, 4%, and 6% concentrations in palm oil. Ticks were immersed in the plant preparations for three minutes. It was found that palm oil killed ticks; 59% death rate on day 6 compared to 50% death rate at day 15 for the control (p<1%). Sawoiki 6% and kerenahi in a concentration of 4% and 8% in oil killed as many ticks as Tigal, a commercial acaricide. The lethal effect of kerenahi was found to be quicker than that of sawoiki: 97% of ticks died by day 7 for kerenahi 8% while the same percentage was recorded at day 19 for the highest concentration of sawoiki. Palm oil and kerenahi prevented the laying of eggs. Sawoiki and Tigal reduced the egg-laying period and rate while all acaricides prevented the hatching of eggs. The results indicate that the traditional acaricides tested were efficient in killing ticks and preventing the ticks' normal reproduction.
Key words: laboratory research; medicinal plants; Euphorbia cameroonica; kerenahi; Psorospermum guianensis; sawoiki; Boophilus decoloratus; Tigal; ticks; Cameroon.
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Andréine Bel and Bernard Bel
This paper addresses the issue of social, religious, and political systems of power underlying repressive or supportive action towards traditional health systems. The argument is substantiated by two case studies which the authors are currently working on. The first study deals with the traditional amchi medical system in Ladakh and its position pertaining to Tibetan medicine practised in Tibet and in Indian refugee settlements. The second project is a documentation of the practice of traditional midwives in rural India.
At the individual level, social prejudice is accountable for misleading concepts about the efficiency of various healing techniques. Following market trends, patients and naturopaths tend to overlook or discard simple remedies such as water, clay, or the valuable resources of physiotherapy.
At the policy level, the authors refer to the establishment of scientific-medical authority in 16th century Europe, which sent to oblivion many popular health practices. In the early 20th century the allopathic system consolidated its position as the unique and universal medical science. The authors quote recent work questioning the relevance of experimental procedures on which this claim is based. Comparing faith-healer Mesmer with prescribers of aspirin, they demonstrate that "all doctors are quacks..."
Returning to India, they comment on similar attempts of high-brow traditional medical systems to present a 'rational' figure even at the cost of becoming pledged to cosmopolitan medicine. This leads to a broader discussion of economical and political vested interests which may undermine research in ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology.
A distinction is made between the holistic conceptions of health advocated by the WHO, alternative medicines, 'New Age' quacks and the authors' long-term exposure to the seitai approach (of Japanese origin) which is based on accurate observation of natural healing processes. The authors clarify seitai's advocacy of 'breaking free' with therapy, disclosing personal experience in situations of acute disease and child delivery. This takes them to the concept of 'hidden knowledge', thereby meaning domains of expertise that are never elicited because they are restricted to specific communities whose voices do not count. This is the case of the child delivery assistance given by traditional midwives in rural India. Social and gender prejudice will drive this knowledge into oblivion as it is also overlooked in traditional health systems.
The authors conclude by proclaiming the urge of a multidisciplinary scientific approach in which emphasis is put on personal experience and commitment: "the scientist's mind should also be there, on the dissection table...". They hope that their presentation will prompt discussions addressing epistemological and technical aspects of research on the healing of humans and animals.
Key words: traditional human medical systems; traditional animal health systems; midwives; seitai; allopathic medicine; Europe; India.
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10. Importance of indigenous knowledge of animal husbandry for development
V.P. Belsare, S.K. Raval, and P.R. Patel
Since the domestication of animals, the life of the people in Bharat, India, has been inextricably linked with their livestock and they have developed much knowledge in animal husbandry. In recent years, emphasis has shifted towards modern science in the maintenance and development of livestock. However, many technologies generated centuries ago are still in use and some of these are known to be economic and sustainable.
Present-day technology generation and transfer should build on such indigenous knowledge. For this, it is necessary to identify scientifically promising technologies and practices that can be integrated with scientific knowledge for efficient and economic management of livestock.
This paper discusses:
Key words: indigenous knowledge; animal husbandry; technology development.
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11. Farmer participatory research on ethnoveterinary practices: approaches and experiences
Prafull Bhatnagar
Since 1984 Krishi Vigyan Kendram Badgaon (VBKVK), an organisation in India, has been working on various aspects of goat husbandry including provision of healthcare. Through its health umbrella, VBKVK has succeeded in reducing the mortality rate of goat kids from 21.3% in 1991 to 5.8% in 1996 and the abortion percentage from 18.6% to 4.8%.
Though both VBKVK and the goat raisers realise the importance of healthcare, modern healthcare can not be provided on a sustainable basis without outside (especially NGO) intervention. As a cost-effective and practical solution to this problem, VBKVK decided to promote ethnoveterinary practices. In this context a study entitled "Ethnoveterinary Practices for Goats in Mewar and Marwar Regions of Rajasthan" was commissioned in 1996.
This study consists of following the aspects:
The documentation work was done in Jodhpur, Barmer, Jaisalmer, Ajmer, and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan. These districts were selected with view of the migration route of the Rabaris - a community traditionally engaged in sheep and goat rearing and well-known for their wealth of ethnoveterinary knowledge. Moreover, a wider geographical coverage helped in identifying 'substitutes' (ingredients which can be alternatively used), as different areas have their own characteristic flora.
These areas were extensively toured to identify the ethnoveterinary practitioners in the villages (guni). The study team took informal interviews with about 100 such guni and documented about 350 ethnoveterinary practices for 20 different problems. Verification was done merely on the basis of internal and external consistency of the information. In some cases the evolution of a practice was traced to screen out actual effective treatments from superstitions.
At present, experts of VBKVK screen the practices documented according to the following parameters:
Such screening is essential as the traditional knowledge is highly 'context specific' in nature and ingredients. Some ingredients which are seasonally available will be stored at the Goat Demonstration Unit for future use. However, these practices can be promoted as an alternative to modern healthcare only if they are effective under local goat husbandry conditions. VBKVK's experience in other sectors like agriculture indicates that FPR is the best approach of doing such field testing. A group of goat raisers will test the selected practices under guidance of VBKVK. The practices which successfully pass FPR trials will be shared with goat raisers and local agencies interested in goat development.
Key words: field research; application of ethnoveterinary medicine; goat; documentation; validation; farmer participatory research; Rajasthan, India.
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12. Studies on wound healing activity of Prosopis juliflora leaf juice
S.K. Bhavsar, J.G. Sarvaiya, R.A. Patel, A.M. Thaker, M.P Verma, and J.K. Malik
Previous studies showed that the juice of leaves of Prosopis juliflora (mesquite, Gujarati: gando baval) possesses activity against some microorganisms. This study evaluated the wound healing activity of a 10% ointment made of the plant's leaf juice in calves. Wounds of 2 cm x 3 cm size were created surgically on either side of the back and were treated with 10% leaf juice ointment. The healing process was compared with that induced by simple ointment. The ointments were applied daily for 10 days and thereafter every second day until complete healing. The evaluation of wound healing was based on clinical, histological, and biomechanical studies. Wound tissues were collected at day 7, 14, and 28 after the start of the application of formulated ointment. In both groups, various clinical indices such as inflammatory reaction, granulation, and the contraction and epithelisation of tissues at different time intervals were almost similar. There were no marked differences in localisation of collagen fibres, elastin fibres, mucopolysaccharide concentration, acid and alkaline phosphatase activities, and the tensile strength and extensibility of healing tissue in both groups at different stages of healing. The results indicate no significant difference in the wound healing effects of 10% ointment of leaf juice of Prosopis juliflora and simple ointment.
Key words: clinical study; medicinal plants; Prosopis juliflora; mesquite; calves; wound healing.
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13. Effects of Nutrospel and oxytetracycline in hypogammaglobulinaemic calves
D.L. Bijwal
The effects of Nutrospel, a commercial herbal immunostimulant, and the broad-spectrum antibiotic oxytetracycline were tested in 12 newborn hypogammaglobulinaemic cross-bred calves. The animals were divided into three groups of four calves each. The first group was fed with colostrum while the second and third groups did not receive any colostrum. All calves of the second group were treated with Oxytetracycline (Wolycycline, Wochardt, Bombay) at a dosage of 5 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) intramuscularly (i.m.) daily for three days at the age of two and four weeks. Calves of the third group were treated with 20 g Nutrospel (Respel Pharma, Bangalore) daily orally in milk for 20 days and Oxytetracycline at a dosage of 5 mg/kg b.w. i.m. daily for three days at the age of two and five weeks. All groups were examined for clinical and immunobiochemical changes at different intervals. Colostrum-fed calves were normal and healthy. Colostrum-deprived calves of the second group had a marked immunosuppression which was associated with clinical changes like diarrhoea and dehydration, and 75% mortality. Their levels of serum total proteins, globulins, gammaglobulins, glucose, calcium, iron, copper, zinc and manganese as well as their body weights were significantly lower than those of the calves of the first group. In the third group, Nutrospel with antimicrobial therapy had stimulated resistance and growth as became evident from the control of fever, diarrhoea, naval ill, and mortality. In this group, the levels of serum total proteins, globulins, gammaglobulins, phosphorus, iron, copper, zinc and manganese, as well as their body weight were significantly higher than those of the calves of the second group. The results indicated that the combined therapy of Nutrospel and Oxytetracycline controlled infections and mortality of hypogammaglobulinaemic calves through antimicrobial, immunostimulatory, and growth-promoting effects.
Key words: clinical study; Nutrospel; oxytetracycline; hypogammaglobulinaemia; calves.
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14. Scientific evidence of efficacy of medicinal plants for animal treatment
Nsekuye Bizimana
With the development of modern medicine, especially after the Second World War, traditional medical practices have been increasingly replaced and overlooked at the international level, mostly because many people regarded them as ineffective and useless. By contrast, modern medicine was thought to be able to solve almost all health problems of humans and animals. But this overestimation of modern medicine changed in the course of the 'green wave' since the 1970s, particularly in industrialised countries.
The 'green wave' has been characterised by an increasing demand for natural products in the form of drugs, food, and cosmetics and was mainly triggered by the side effects resulting from the increasing use of chemicals in various areas of life, including medicine. This movement towards a natural way of life has led to a reconsideration of traditional medical systems, since these are based on the use of natural products. Today herbal medicines have become big business. The market for phytomedicines in the United States of America is currently estimated at over US$ 1 billion annually. In the European Community, the annual sales value of herbal remedies has recently exceeded US$ 6 billion.
The reconsideration of traditional medical systems in the industrialised world and the fact that modern medicine is too expensive for many developing countries were the main reasons for the decision of the World Health Organization (WHO) in the 1970s to promote traditional medical systems, particularly by research into medicinal plants. One of the research objectives was to check scientifically the efficacy of the plants used in traditional medicine and to identify the principles responsible for genuine therapeutic effects. Subsequently, many medicinal plants have been investigated. In many cases a correlation between the traditional medical use and the pharmacological findings has been established and the active principles identified and isolated. Meanwhile some promising substances like artemisinin from Artemisia annua (antimalarial) and gossypol from Gossypium spp. (antifertility) have been discovered. Taxol from Taxus brevifolia Nutt. has rapidly become one of the leading anticancer drugs of the present time.
In contrast to traditional medicine for humans, traditional veterinary medicine (termed also ethnoveterinary medicine) has not yet been promoted at the international level and very little research has been done in this field. Most research has been limited to finding out which plants are used for which purposes. There has been little research into the efficacy of veterinary medicinal plants and there have been few attempts to identify the active principles. But many plants used in human medicine are also helpful for the understanding and sustaining the use of veterinary medicinal plants. That is why, on the basis of existing literature, we have compiled data on the efficacy and the biological and pharmacological properties of African medicinal plants used in both human and veterinary medicine. Huge amounts of data have come together, useful not only to Africa but also to other continents, as many plants occur in many parts of the world and are medically used in many areas. This is particularly true for tropical countries. A book with the results of this study will soon be published. This paper presents details on selected plants to show the correlation between traditional veterinary claims and chemical and pharmacological findings. Also, the problems related to plant investigations, especially to controversial results, will be discussed.
Key words: ethnoveterinary medicine; medicinal plants; efficacy; pharmacology; Africa.
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Andy Catley
The Somali economy and culture is dominated by livestock production and ownership. The traditional veterinary knowledge of Somali pastoralists has been documented since at least the 1950s although only rarely has this information affected the design of livestock-related aid programmes. This paper summarises the existing literature on Somali ethnoveterinary language and practices, and relates traditional systems to veterinary "privatisation" and "paravet" projects in the 1990s. Evaluations and studies on newly emerging private veterinary services in Somali areas have identified local concerns regarding the loss of traditional skills and over-reliance on imported veterinary pharmaceuticals. The paper also discusses the co-existence of traditional livestock herding systems and more recent market-orientated livestock management. Both veterinary service delivery and livestock production systems in Somalia are changing in the absence of government.
The paper argues that although aid agencies will continue to promote western-style veterinary services in Somali occupied areas, the resilience of the Somali livestock economy, at both household and national levels, is based on traditional husbandry and veterinary skills which should be acknowledged and supported.
Key words: pastoralists; ethnoveterinary medicine; veterinary services; Somalia.
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16. Prevention of ketosis in cows with polyherbal preparation
Amalendu Chakrabarti and Rahul Amin
Ketosis is a production disease in dairy cows which can substantially reduce milk yield. This study used 28 cows that were at least eight months pregnant and had ketone bodies in the urine along with mild levels of hepatic lipidosis (borderline ketosis). The cows were divided into four groups of seven cows each (treatment groups A1, B1, and C1 and a control group). Clinical signs and biochemical profiles of all four groups were monitored before and after treatment and two weeks after calving. Group A1 was treated with 30 ml of Livol PFS daily for 14 days. Group B1 was treated with 30 ml Livol PFS Plus daily for 14 days and 10 g of Hb Strong twice a day for seven days (polyherbal drugs marketed by M/s. Indian Herbs, Saharanpur). Group C1 received propanediol, a conventional drug, at a dosage of 100 ml twice a day for seven days. The control group did not receive any treatment. In group B1, ketotic features disappeared and remained absent even two weeks after calving while animals in groups A1, C1 and the control group showed ketotic features following calving. The results indicate that the combination of Livol PFS Plus and Hb Strong is more effective in combating ketosis than the other treatments. This paper discusses details of preventive aspects of such herbal preparations compared to conventional drugs against post-parturient production diseases.
Key words: clinical study; ketosis; dairy cows; Livol PFS Plus; Hb Strong; propanediol.
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17. Ethnoveterinary medicine for dairy cows
T.U. Chinthu, B.K. Narainswami, and Sheeba Revi
This paper reports the results of a study on the traditional veterinary treatment methods of local healers. The study was conducted in South Kerala during 1997. Foot-and-mouth disease in cows is treated by smearing Azadirachta indica (neem) oil boiled with Brassica juncea (mustard) seeds on the affected parts. The animals are also fed with gruel prepared from rice porridge and Cuminum cyminum (cumin) seeds. Rinderpest is treated with a number of drinks that are simultaneously given: juice of Oxalis corniculata mixed with salted buttermilk; Murraya koenigii leaves roasted in a mud pot and mixed with a little water; and rice porridge cooked with the extract of Aegle marmelos. To control dysentery, leaves of Tragia involucra cooked in fermented bran and mixed with Curcuma longa L. (turmeric) are fed. Along with this, animals receive the water from boiling Murraya koenigii leaves. Stomach pain in cows is treated by feeding the cows with tender shoots of Piper betel L. (areca nut), Capsicum frutescens L. (green chillies), and Terminalia chebula (haritaki) in human urine. To control cough in cows, a decoction of dry Zingiber officinale (ginger) is fed to the cows. External parasites are controlled by applying a mixture prepared from Datura stramonium (ummam) and Tinospora cordifolia (amrith). To counteract tapioca leaf poisoning, cows are fed with leaves of Elephantopus scaber (anachuvadi) in buttermilk. The cows are then made to run, their body is massaged with hot water bags, and they are made to drink hot water with sugar. To treat flatulence in cows, they are fed a mixture of milk, Allium cepa (onion), and leaves of Annona squamosa (custard apple). While ethnoveterinary medicine is eco-friendly and cheap, it is tedious to prepare and not standardised. Hence, there is a need to standardise ethnoveterinary practices.
Key words: field research; ethnoveterinary treatments; foot-and-mouth disease; dysentery; stomach pain; cough; parasites; cattle; Kerala, India.
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18. Comparative evaluation of herbal anthelmintics in calves
N.P. Dakshinkar, D.B. Sarode, and A.S. Rao
Thirty-six 12-16 months old Sahiwal x Jersey cow calves naturally infected with Haemonchus contortus were randomly divided into five groups. One group remained untreated (T), the others were treated with powder of dried neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves (T1), powder of dried Moringa oleifera seeds (T2), Indian Herbs Broad Spectrum Anthelmintic (IHBS) powder (T3), and Morantel Citrate (T4). The mean numbers of eggs per gram feces (EPG) as well as haemoglobin, serum iron, and serum copper were recorded on days 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 after treatment. On day 28, the EPGs were 583 ± 192 (T), 1983 ± 631 (T1), 2900 ± 332 (T2), and 1066 ± 570 (T3). The variations were not significant. In group T4, however, the EPG on day 28 was significantly lower than the value measured on day 0. The haematobiochemical parameters did not differ significantly in any of the groups.
Key words: clinical study; medicinal plants; veterinary anthelmintics; Haemonchus contortus; neem; Moringa oleifera seeds; IHBS powder; Morantel Citrate; calves.
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19. Therapeutic evaluation of crude extracts of indigenous plants against mange of dogs
N.P. Dakshinkar and D.B. Sarode
Local application of crude extracts of garlic, neem, and sitaphalas 1:10 (v/w) were effective against sarcoptic mange in dogs. Recovery rates for the three plants were 54%, 67%, and 44% respectively and the average numbers of days required for complete cure were 22 ± 0.6, 27 ± 1.7, and 28 ± 1.9 days. All treatments were refractory in treating Demodex spp. infection.
Key words: dog; sarcoptic mange; Demodex spp.; garlic; neem; sitaphalas.
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20. Use of herbal preparations in clinical and sub-clinical mastitis
P. A. Deore
Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder. It adversely affects milk production whereby losses due to subclinical mastitis are more severe than those due to clinical cases. Controlling subclinical mastitis can reduce the losses in milk production substantially. Routinely, clinical and subclinical cases of mastitis are treated with antimicrobials both intramammarily and parenterally. The use of antimicrobials over long periods has triggered the development of resistant strains, which has resulted in the use of increasing doses of antimicrobials, causing the danger of increasing amounts of drug residues in milk, a potential biohazard.
Four veterinarians tested the herbal preparation Titali-M (Mycon Pharma, Pune) in subclinical and clinical cases of mastitis in 56 dairy cattle and buffaloes under field conditions. The drug was given orally.
After Titali-M treatment both the quantity and quality of milk improved. Swelling of the udder was reduced considerably within three days. Titali-M has anti-inflammatory and microbicidal properties.
Key words: clinical study; mastitis; herbal treatment; Titali-M; cattle.
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21. Effect of Annona squamosa seed preparations on house flies
P.U. Desai
House flies and other ectoparasites can transmit diseases. Annona squamosa (custard apple) is a tropical tree and reportedly has effects on wounds and lice. This study tested the effects of various preparations from Annona squamosa seeds on eggs, larvae, and adult forms of house flies. The trials used Zurich, Chinese, and WHO strains of flies. Their breeding and maintenance followed standard methods. Annona squamosa seeds were applied as aqueous solutions, acetonated solutions, powder of dried seeds in concentrations of 10, 15, and 20%, and boiled and unboiled preparations in edible oil.
The powdered form had a marked effect on eggs and larvae, while adult flies seemed susceptible to acetone preparations. The aqueous solutions had some effect on egg hatching but the preparations in acetone were superior. The powder remarkably reduced the percentage of hatching eggs. The effect increased with increasing concentration of the powder. It was observed that concentrations above 10% showed variable larvicidal activity. This is pertinent in the treatment of wounds with maggots. It was also observed that the fresh preparation was more effective. The contact treatment on adult flies showed variable effects on all three strains of flies. Custard apple powder is reasonably useful in fly control and may help control the spread of diseases.
Key words: laboratory research; Annona squamosa seeds; custard apple; flies; ectoparasites.
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Felix R. Doepmann
Literature on traditional veterinary medicine in Africa was evaluated mostly for therapeutic aspects. Historical and biographical references, anthropological questions, and the state of the art of writing only received attention when it was of significance in clarifying terminology for the purpose of identifying diseases. Examples from the works of anthropologists, linguists, and veterinarians show that critical analysis may result in different interpretations of the traditional veterinary medicine described. The critical review reveals that there is not one traditional veterinary medicine but every culture has its own specific healing system. Techniques for diagnosis, prevention, therapy, and the rating of success differ between the systems. Examples of texts, above all, allow an insight into the art of writing of some authors, which has an important impact on the interpretation of these sources. The paper discusses time reckoning, disease classification, and livestock individual values among different cultures. Examples from WoDaaBe, Tuareg, and Nuer traditional veterinary medicine include rectal examination, haematoscopy, and macroscopic examination of faeces and urine.
Key words: ethnoveterinary literature; WoDaabe; Tuareg; Nuer; Africa.
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23. Evaluation of indigenous herbs as antitrypanosomal agents
K. Dwivedi
Scanning the literature on ethnomedicine has revealed a number of herbs that are claimed to be effective in the management of recurrent and intermittent fevers, malarial fevers, and spleeno- and hepatomegaly. Because neither ancient Ayurvedic literature nor publications on folk or tribal medical practices in India mention trypanosomosis (surra), it is imperative that herbs used against these conditions by traditional healers be scientifically evaluated against Trypanosoma evansi which produces intermittent fever, anaemia, jaundice, hepato- and spleenomegaly. It was therefore decided to screen the following indigenous plants both in vitro and in vivo against T. evansi: Achyranthes aspera, Aristolochia indica, Azadirachta indica, Caesalpinia bonducella, Calotropis procera, Cannabis indica, Cassia occidentalis, Cissampelos pareira, Cyperus rotundus, Datura alba, Eclipta prostrata, Embelia ribes, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Hydrocotyle asiatica, Moringa pterygosperma, Nyctanthes arbortristis, Ocimum sanctum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Pongamia glabra, Smilax china, Streblus asper, Tinospora cordifolia, and Xanthium strumarium. The plants were prepared as fresh juice and aqueous and alcoholic extracts.
It was observed that fresh juice of Xanthium strumarium leaves, Parthenium hysterophorus flowers, and Aristolochia indica stem possessed 100% trypanocidal activities in vitro. Fresh juices were effective at 1:20 dilution and alcoholic and aqueous extracts were effective in concentrations of 500 and 1000 mg/ml. Extracts prepared from the different parts (i.e., flower, leaf, bark, stem, or root) of all other plants did not show significant antitrypanosomal activities.
For the in vivo trials, mice were inoculated with 104 trypanosomes intraperitoneally and treated with preparations made from individual parts of plants. The tests showed that no plant material could clear the mice from trypanosomes. All experimental animals died within 6-10 days of infection. Treatments with alcoholic extracts prepared from Xanthium strumarium (100 mg/kg), Nyctanthes arbortristis (300 mg/kg), and Cannabis indica (250 mg/kg) seed significantly prolonged the mean survival time of the experimentally infected mice. Parthenium hysterophorus and Calotropis procera were found to be highly toxic to mice.
Based on these preliminary investigations, it is difficult to pinpoint one single plant which could cure surra in animals. Therefore, combinations of herbs possessing antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antianaemic properties in vivo and antitrypanosomal activity in vitro should be tested in cattle, horses, camels, and dogs experimentally infected with trypanosomes.
Key words: laboratory research; medicinal plants; Trypanosoma evansi; surra; herbal medicines; Xanthium strumarium; Parthenium hysterophorus; Aristolochia indica; Nyctanthes arbortristis; Cannabis indica; Calotropis procera.
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24. Ethnoveterinary medicine and therapeutics: defining their context and potentials
Baldwin L. Dy
This paper draws the attention of veterinary professionals to the importance of natural products in the development of new prototype drugs. It stresses the adequacy of the veterinary medical approach as a research strategy and will, likewise, present recent research findings that may have significant impact and bearing on the animal healthcare systems being practised. Some traditional medicinal plants that have antimicrobial properties in vitro may not be able to exert their efficacy in vivo because they require specific ways of preparation or need to be mixed with certain other ingredients to be able to work.
Understanding Chinese traditional medicine as well as Philippine traditional medicinal practice could provide some of the solutions to this problem. Basic postulates in our modern organic chemistry and physical sciences could be used to interpret and extrapolate the traditional knowledge of the theories behind the efficacy of traditional medicine. In retrospect the rationale by which therapy is directed upon in basic ethnoveterinary medicine bears semblance in substance and form to some of the most basic postulates of organic chemistry and physical sciences, thus, providing credence, if not, validity to the systems approach.
In conclusion, the formulation and institution of policies and programmes on animal healthcare could be ascertained in the light of being relevant, appropriate, and integrating with the culture, thus, feasibly ensuring its implementation.
Key words: veterinary medical systems approach; efficacy of medicinal plants; development of prototype drugs.
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25. Anthelmintic value of Tinospora rumphii
T.J. Fernandez
Consultations with farmers in the neighbouring villages of the Visayas State College for Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, the Philippines, revealed that the farmers were using 18 plants as dewormers for goats. However, when these plants were tested as dewormers, only Mimosa pudica and Chrysophyllum cainito were found to be effective, and only Tinospora rumphii was noted as being highly effective. The efficacy was based on the reduction of eggs per gram faeces. Pharmacological studies of Tinospora rumphii revealed that the LD50 was 7.95 g/kg body weight. This means that at this dosage 50% of the experimental mice showed uncoordinated movements, tremor, and/or death. On the other hand, the ED50 of the plant was 4.5 g/kg b.w.. This means that at this dosage 50% of the experimental animals were cured of their worm burden. Studying the therapeutic index of the plant drug, it was observed that the crude extract of Tinospora rumphii at a dosage of 4.5 g/kg b.w. was as effective as commercial dewormers in reducing the worm burden of experimental goats.
Key words: laboratory research; medicinal plants; Mimosa pudica; Chrysophyllum cainito; Tinospora rumphii; goats; worms; pharmacology; Philippines.
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26. Experiences with a mobile field project among camel owners in Kenya
C.R. Field and S.P. Simpkin
During the past nine years FARM-Africa's Pastoralist Development Project has assisted camel owning nomads in northern Kenya to become more self-reliant in food. This has been achieved by improving the productivity of their livestock, especially camels, sheep, and goats.
In order to understand the real problems of pastoral nomads, it has been necessary to go to them, live with them, and sometimes adopt their traditional practices. Project field teams are highly mobile living in traditional Somali huts which may be carried by camels between sites. From the base camp special outreach services are provided on foot to remote areas using camels to transport much needed veterinary and human drugs which are administered by animal health assistants and community nurses. Demonstration herds of camels are kept and our staff faces the reality of searching for pasture, water, and secure areas free from disease for their animals.
Various diseases comprise the most important constraints to camel production identified by pastoralists. Numerous training workshops have been held to raise awareness and impart skills concerning camel health. Community drug handlers have been trained and certified by government officers. During training, special sessions are held with the aim of strengthening traditional values and practices. Participants are encouraged to avoid tunnel vision where only the syringe, needle, and expensive antibiotics are seen at the end. Instead they are made aware of the many alternatives involving traditional ethnoveterinary medicine which they may apply especially for the prevention of diseases. Their knowledge concerning ethnic names, description, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment (including efficacy of treatment) of diseases is then shared freely among participants.
The main outcome of our work has been an increasing population of camels which produce more to feed the increasing demands from nomads. Camels are now valued highly and are increasing their geographical range both within Kenya and beyond its borders in Tanzania and parts of southern Ethiopia. A manual of ethnoveterinary practices will prove invaluable for those acquiring camels for the first time and as a means of sharing information from widely scattered pastoral communities facing similar problems in remote parts of the globe.
Key words: pastoralists; health services; indigenous knowledge; camels; Kenya.
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Denis Fielding
It is stressed that ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) will only be widely embraced by future veterinarians and animal scientists if they are appropriately introduced to it by their teachers. The attitudes of these teachers to EVM are therefore pivotal. If the attitudes of teachers are to be changed, a starting point in so doing is to establish what they are at the present time. In order to do this, a postal survey of the current level of interest in EVM in 385 veterinary training and research institutions around the world was undertaken and is reported.
The survey investigated a number of areas including: current trends in attitudes of scientists and farmers to EVM; the current scale of the teaching of EVM; the arguments in favour of and against giving greater attention to EVM; the assistance required if any, to advance EVM as a taught/researched subject. A response rate of 17% was achieved. It was found that interest in EVM among the scientific colleagues of the respondents was increasing while its interest to farmers was changing relatively little.
Current teaching time devoted to EVM was found to be very low to non-existent. The majority of respondents felt that EVM was a subject to be taught within existing subjects rather than as a subject in its own right. The main arguments for giving greater attention to EVM centred on: farmers are using it therefore it should be investigated; 'modern methods' are sometimes unavailable and have limitations; a belief that there is untapped potential in EVM; changes in public opinion favouring more 'natural' approaches to health maintenance. Arguments against EVM centred strongly on the present lack of scientific validation. In order to advance EVM as a subject the main requirements were seen as more dissemination of relevant information and scientific validation of existing practices.
The overriding implication arising from the survey is the need for standardised evaluation of EVM practices. A methodology for such evaluations is suggested with reference to anthelmintic plants. It is concluded that EVM needs to adopt a professional rather than an evangelical approach if it is to progress as a sustainable method of animal healthcare.
Key words: survey; ethnoveterinary medicine; attitudes of scientists and academics; evaluation method; anthelmintic plants.
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S.B.Gokhale
Farming communities often adjust their operations according to the traditional calendar (panchang) which differs from the international calendar. The rural people strongly believe that the position of stars and the phases of the moon influence climate, crop, and livestock performance. They also believe that the direction in which an animal is standing at the time of insemination and other factors effect conception. To verify these beliefs, field data from 6175 cattle collected at cattle breeding centres in Mujaffarnagar District from 1981 to 1991 were analysed.
Overall conception rate at village level was 47.4 ± 2.3%. Cows facing east and north showed significantly higher conception rates (50.0 ± 1.2 and 49.8 ± 1.4 % respectively) than those facing west and south (46.1 ± 1.3 and 44.8 ± 1.3% respectively). The effect of direction was more pronounced in local cows than in crossbreds.
Conception rate was highest (50.1 ± 1.2%) during full moon phase (ekadashi to panchami) and lowest (45.82 ± 1.25%) in the lower lunar phase. Cows inseminated on Wednesdays and Thursdays showed significantly higher conception rates (50.0 ± 1.8% and 51.6 ± 1.8% respectively) than those inseminated on Fridays (43.6 ± 1.8%). Animals inseminated on hasta nakshtra had a significantly lower conception rate (40.8 ± 3.6%) than those inseminated on revati (53.6 ± 3.6%), ashwini (51.2 ± 3.2%), uttar bhadrapada (51.9 ± 3.6%), and mul (51.9 ± 3.6%). The animals inseminated on vruddhi, dhruva, vajra, vyatipat, harshal, and siddhi yoog had the highest conception rates ranging from 50.1 ± 3.4% to 54.2 ± 3.9%, those inseminated on priti and ayshman the lowest (42.0 ± 3.9% and 41.5 ± 3.9% respectively). The effect of karan was marginally significant (p<0.04).
The animals inseminated during shukla paksh in uttarayana (December to May) conceived more frequently than those in krishna paksha while the conception rate was significantly lower when the animals were inseminated during the same paksha during dakshinayana (June to November).
Further data and analysis are needed to gain a better understanding of the influence of the above mentioned factors on livestock breeding. Such studies may provide insights in traditional believes and may be of use in field programmes.
Key words: traditional beliefs; livestock breeding; India.
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29. Biological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) derivatives in animals
S.K. Gowda
Neem (Azadirachta indica), an esteemed evergreen plant, is native to the Indian subcontinent. It is hardy and can withstand extreme ecological conditions. Parts of neem used include leaves, bark, seed kernel, and oil. Several diverse chemical compounds and their derivatives like azadirachtin and nimbicidin, have been isolated from neem products. Such compounds possess varied biological properties and impart bitterness to neem. Bitter compounds exhibit repellent, sterilising, and antifertility effects in insects, and are hence employed in the manufacture of pesticides. Processed neem seed cake is also a good protein supplement in livestock feeding. Such products have been screened in experimental animals and have shown both beneficial and deleterious effects. Hypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-infective, and antinematodal effects of neem derivatives are well documented. Aqueous extracts of neem seeds, bark, or leaves exhibit potent immunostimulant activity through both humoral and cell-mediated response. Spermicidal action of neem oil in the vaginal tract of rats and monkeys is well understood. Raw neem seed cake when fed to rats, rabbits, and chicken for sufficiently long periods has caused tissue damage as well as physiological changes including antitesticular action. Low levels of neem seed cake feeding to layers did not affect egg production but levels beyond 15% of the diet reduced egg production and affected erythropoiesis. Azadirachtin has shown dose- and tissue-specific inhibition of glutathione S-transferase and reduced glutathione and UDP-glucuronyl transferase activity in liver, lung, kidney, and brain of rats. In view of some beneficial effects, neem has a promising role in animal health and production.
Key words: Azadirachta indica; neem; medicinal properties.
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30. Experiences of practising ethnoveterinary medication in villages in Uttar Pradesh
Jagdish C. Gupta
In India ethnoveterinary practice has a long tradition. Shalihotra, Nakul, and King Nal were regarded as excellent veterinary physicians. Before the 1950's when the antibiotics were discovered, veterinary hospitals treated their patients with local herbs, spices, and local chemicals.
Sometimes veterinary doctors are not available in the villages, particularly at night. Animals are then treated with ingredients available in the kitchen or village shops. I have been practising for the last 40 years. When villagers come for advice and it is not possible to visit their farms, I recommend the following ethnoveterinary ingredients which are easily available for the farmers.
With regards to infectious diseases, prophylactic indigenous vaccinations are advised to all animals according to season and locality.
Key words: ethnoveterinary practices; local herbs; India.
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31. Anti-inflammatory activity of Dalbergia sissoo leaves
S. Hajare, S. Chandra, S.K. Tandan, and J. Lal
This study tested the anti-inflammatory activity of alcoholic extract of Dalbergia sissoo leaves in different models of inflammation in rats. The extract was orally administered at dosages of 100, 300, and 1000 mg/kg. Carrageenin-induced hind paw oedema models were employed to study the extract's anti-inflammatory activity. In this model, the extract significantly inhibited acute inflammation at dosages of 300 to 1000 mg/kg. The extract also significantly reduced the weight of granulamous tissue from chronic inflammation induced by cotton-pellet granuloma. Furthermore, 300 and 1000 mg/kg of the extract significantly inhibited dye leakage in acetic acid-induced vascular permeability. No ulcerogenic effects on the gastric mucosa of rats were recorded during acute and chronic gastric irritation tests. The study concluded that the alcoholic extract of D. sissoo leaves produces significant anti-inflammatory effects in different models of inflammation, without having side effects on the gastric mucosa.
Key words: laboratory research; pharmacology; Dalbergia sissoo leaves; anti-inflammatory properties; rats.
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32. Traditional veterinary practices in rural Medak of Andhra Pradesh
Khan Shaheen Hamed
Cost, inaccessibility, and other problems associated with the conventional animal healthcare system have led to the rediscovery of traditional rural wisdom on this subject. Ethnoveterinary practices are often cheap, safe, and based on local resources and strength. They can provide useful alternatives to conventional animal healthcare. But unfortunately these practices are little documented and increasingly lost because they are passed on from generation to generation through oral communication. To prepare a package of simplified, effective traditional veterinary treatments for rural Medak of Andhra Pradesh, information on ethnoveterinary medicine by disease and treatment was collected and documented. Since several treatments exist for each disease, an attempt has been made to validate treatments on an empirical basis by keeping quantitative and qualitative records of cases and their treatments. Thus details of 160 indigenous veterinary treatments have been collected for 24 animal diseases.
Key words: field research; ethnoveterinary knowledge; alternative animal healthcare; Andhra Pradesh, India.
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33. Cross-cultural cows: a comparison of conceptions of cattle across time and space
Lynn Hirschkind
One basic goal of ethnoveterinary research is the improvement of human and animal well-being, including health and productivity, by means of holistic analyses of animal management systems. Such analyses require that the conditions of health and illness be defined and understood within the context of biophysical, sociocultural, religious, economic, educational, political, and even legislative systems in which humans and animals are embedded. In practice such holism has proven elusive. It seems particularly seductive to assume that western conceptual categories of what an animal is, does and its place in the world are universal, and to proceed on this basis. This paper insists that what an animal is, its essence, its purpose, and its qualities vary cross-culturally and in particular in relation to socioeconomic conditions. Ethnoveterinary researchers must try to fathom how animals are conceived and perceived as a prerequisite to understanding how animals are treated and placed in various agricultural systems.
To provide a concrete demonstration of the above points, this paper describes and compares conceptions of cattle in five different sociocultural systems. In each case, a local conception of cattle is traced to its surrounding social, economic, and cultural context. Cattle are placed in their respective farming, herding, or ranching systems, which are in turn placed in the framework of local, regional, and national society. In each case, the observed (etic) system of cattle management is explained in (emic) terms of local knowledge and meanings. Tentatively, the five cases are: 1) highland Ecuadorian peasant farmers, 2) Indian Hindu farmers, 3) Nuer pastoralists, 4) ancient Hebrews of the Bible, and 5) North American ranchers. The distinct farming systems provide evidence that cattle management is a function of how they are perceived; and their perception is a function of the surrounding socioeconomic system including religious beliefs and practices, political structures, social organisation, and historical residues. The diverse bio-geographic settings also exert their influence.
Mary Douglas' work on animal categorisation serves as a useful model for tracing the relationship between society and animal conceptions. Following Douglas, animals are categorised as an extension of human categories, i.e., of the principles that serve for ordering human relationships. Since the order of human relationships is variable and a product of multiple causation, it is reasonable to suspect that the perception of animals, and thus their management and health status, are likewise locally determined and highly diverse. The task of this work is to trace out how these conceptual categories become concrete cattle management systems in five different times and places. The lesson to be drawn is that the cow as a machine to convert kilo calories from one form to another is specific to commercial ranching in urban-industrialised societies. It is not a cross-culturally valid or useful model and is positively misleading when sought after and applied in dissimilar settings.
Key words: cattle; crosscultural comparison; human-animal relationship; conception of animals.
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Katrien van't Hooft
Livestock production constitutes an important element in the survival strategies of the large majority of rural families in Bolivia. A whole range of different livestock activities are being employed, intricately related with agricultural and non-agricultural elements. These strategies include both traditional and western-based production methods. The relation between the two is as complex as the survival strategies themselves; still it is possible to confirm that all families use the combination one way or other. The growing need for cash money touches even the most remote rural village, which has called for changes in survival and production strategies. Both in human and veterinary medicine traditional healing is often combined with western medicine. To understand the relation between the two, one has to look at livestock keeping under different circumstances. In a study on family level livestock keeping recently undertaken in Bolivia, it became clear that the following aspects play a role in the relation between the two:
In Bolivia rapid loss of ethnoveterinary knowledge is a sad reality. There is an urgent need for activities to counteract this process. The little research done in this field is hampered by two difficulties: on the one hand inexperience because of western-oriented formal education; on the other hand isolation of these research activities. Indigenous knowledge research can easily become a mere academic exercise loaded with superiority if we do not look at it in the context of the survival strategies of poor rural families. If we want to understand ethnoveterinary medicine with the objective of stimulating poor rural families, it is essential to look at farmers' strategies in combining traditional and western elements that fit their specific circumstances and needs.
Key words: field research; family-level livestock keeping; ethnoveterinary medicine; choice of healthcare system; Bolivia.
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A.G. Jagun and P.A. Abdu
In Nigeria, the advent of the Europeans and the introduction of modern medical practices in both human and animals began in the early 20th century. It greatly eroded the peoples' beliefs in their local medical practices. Until recently, traditional medical practices were looked down upon as being primitive or inferior to conventional medicine. Most traditional practitioners go about their practices secretly or tend to rely increasingly on modern practices. Consequently, many indigenous practices commonly passed on orally by elders from generation to generation are getting lost. Resulting from the new global re-awakening and recognition of the importance of indigenous practices, interest in traditional veterinary practices in Nigeria started earnestly in 1980, perhaps as a "child of necessity" due to the prevailing economic squeeze, coupled with high costs of the few available veterinary drugs.
This paper presents the results of a recent field survey conducted in 11 states in Nigeria by the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria. A total of 167 farmers, located in 58 towns and villages, scattered over 22 of the 500 Local Government Areas were visited. Some 82 livestock diseases and other animal health problems were identified in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and rabbits. Information was obtained on 629 different local remedies used by local livestock farmers in these areas. The paper recommends the need for an in-depth study of ethnoveterinary practices in Nigeria so that the country can overcome its over-dependence on foreign veterinary drugs.
Key words: field research; ethnoveterinary medicine; Nigeria.
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36. Ethnomedicinal effect of whey feeding on ascarid infection in buffalo calves
R.G. Jani and P.R. Patel
A study on neonatal parasitic diarrhoea in buffalo calves from villages nearby Anand (Kaira District, Gujarat, India) revealed a high occurrence of Neoascaris vitulorum infection. The egg numbers per gram faeces (EPG) of 144 diarrhoeic calves were determined using Mc.Master's technique. The faecal samples from animals fed on whey and salt contained significantly fewer parasite eggs than samples from animals not fed on whey and salt. The reduction of EPG in the group fed on whey and salt might be due to purgative and laxative actions of whey and salt. The findings are discussed.
Key words: clinical study; Neoascaris vitulorum; neonatal diarrhoea; buffalo calves; whey; salt; Gujarat, India.
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37. Ethnomedicine for ectoparasites in buffaloes: a clinical study on mange dermatitis
R.G. Jani, S.K. Raval, and P.R. Patel
Skin diseases in livestock cause annoyance, uneasiness, itching, and hide damage, reducing milk production and income from the sale of animals. A clinical study was made on ectoparasites which cause parasitic dermatitis in animals. During clinical camps organised in villages nearby Anand, 42 buffaloes with clinical dermatitis were presented. Their skin lesions were examined and recorded. Skin scrapings were collected and processed for microscopical examination. Twenty-eight buffaloes had Sarcoptes spp., 10 had Psoroptes spp. and four had mixed infections with both mites.
These buffaloes were used to study the efficacy of an ethnomedicine made from the decoction of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves, and camphor. A medicated bath was advised for alternative days followed by the topical application of karanja oil (Pongamia glabra) on the affected area of the body. The microscopical examination of skin scrapings on day 7, 14, and 21 post therapy revealed complete absence of developmental stages of the above mites on day 21 post therapy. By this day, the clinical dermatitis lesions were also completely cleared. The present findings suggest the value of the above trials. The acaricidal efficacy of the ethnomedicine is discussed.
Key words: clinical study; medicinal plants; Sarcoptes; Psoroptes; acaricide; Azadirachta indica; neem; Nicotiana tabacum; tobacco; camphor; buffalo; Gujarat, India.
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38. Indigenous animal health practices in Sri Lanka: extracts from an ancestral palm leaf manuscript
T.N. Jayatileka and M.N.M. Ibrahim
People have learned through trial and error how to use various medications to alleviate diseases and suffering of animals. The indigenous knowledge thus evolved is highly specialised and differs from that found in the Sathva Ayurveda or Ayurvedic texts on veterinary science. In the light of the progressing loss of indigenous knowledge, it is important to revitalise the application of information stored in ancient palm leaf manuscripts and other documents. This paper reports the results of a study of a 146-year-old palm leaf manuscript by two indigenous physicians.
Written in simple Sinhala language, the manuscript contains more than 1000 prescriptions for cattle diseases. Cattle are differentiated into breeds or name groups. Raja cattle are believed to be more susceptible to a disease entity known as adappan (nasal discharge and tremors) than other cattle breeds. Identification of breed is an important diagnostic tool that relates to the genetic resistance of cattle to different diseases. Diseases are diagnosed with the help of in-depth knowledge of animal husbandry, clinical experience, and the establishment of human-animal psychic bonds.
The manuscript describes disease signs, treatments, medications, mode of drug administration, burning of vital points (moxibustion), bleeding, and specific interventions of a spiritual nature such as yanthra or kem. The striking feature of treatment regimes is the incorporation of both material (visible) and spiritual (invisible) aspects to obtain a satisfactory cure. The many different treatments with medicinal herbs are based on the understanding of the medicinal properties of the herbs and other natural resources. The preparations are commonly made of a variety of ingredients available at farm level such as various medicinal herbs, different plant parts, ant hill mud, animal products (milk products, eggs, bone meal, bat excreta), and human urine. The ingredients are usually combined with a vehicle such as ginger essence, betel juice, thippili (Piper nigrum) juice, lemon juice, water, and coconut milk or water. The most common route for drug administration is through the mouth. The nila or vital points of the body akin to acupuncture are popular application sites for medications which are burnt according to specific patterns to stimulate the immune system. Other routes of drug administration include skin, nose, ear, and anus. Bloodletting from certain specific blood vessels and the tip of the tail helps in the diagnosis and prognosis of certain disease conditions. Direct hand manipulation is a common method used to relieve constipation, dystocia, and retained placenta. Subjecting animals to spiritual medications and casting spells for immobilisation are specialised areas that are not yet fully investigated nor understood. The blessing of livestock herds to prevent the entry of contagious diseases is an important feature of sociocultural perceptions that prevailed during ancient times. A good example is the vows and offerings to the Mangara Pooja deity assigned to the indigenous buffalo, that are still practised.
Key words: ancient palm leaf manuscript; cattle diseases; traditional veterinary medicine; Sinhala language; Sri Lanka.
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39. Ethnoveterinary medicine for domestic animals
V.L. Jayshree, T.K. Narainswami, and B.K. Narainswami
In the ancient past great importance has been given to the usage of indigenous medicines for the treatment of animal diseases. For curing common diseases ethnoveterinary medicine can be used instead of allopathic medicine which is costly and often has side effects. This paper presents information collected from local animal healers. Dogs infested with worms can be treated with Carica papaya L. (papaya) seeds. Collect the seeds from ripened fruits, dry them in the shade, and powder them. Mix one teaspoon of seed powder in milk and jaggery for taste, feed the dog with this paste for three consecutive days twice a day. The treatment should be repeated once after 14 days. This medicine has been found to work well against all sorts of worms but not against tapeworms. A remedy for tapeworms is Piper betel (betel nut) boiled in milk. Collect five to six nuts, powder them, and boil them with 100 ml of milk. Boil the milk until it reduces to 50 ml. Then cool it to room temperature and feed it as a single dose in the evening on four consecutive days. This treatment needs to be repeated once after six months. Besides administering these medicines, feed Curcuma longa L. (turmeric) and two cloves of Allium sativum (garlic) daily to act as guards against worms in the gastrointestinal tract.
Key words: ethnoveterinary medicine; dogs; deworming.
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40. Cognitive domain and acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine by animal scientists
Basavaprabhu Jirli, Prabhat Kumar Jha, and Madhukar Chugh
A study was conducted to ascertain the awareness and acceptance of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) by animal scientists and document the scientists' perceptions regarding ethnoveterinary medicine and practices. The findings reveal that the majority of the scientists are aware of EVM. A considerable number, however, are not ready to accept EVM as such. The majority advocate systematic research before making widespread recommendations. A good number of scientists opined that ethnoveterinary medicines can be adopted. To find out how EVM is communicated, respondents were asked how they came to know about EVM. Indigenous channels (parents, grandparents, farmers, friends, neighbours, etc.) played a greater role than formal communication channels (magazines, journals, booklets, books, etc.). A considerable number of scientists rated 21 of 34 listed practices and medicines as not having side effects on the production potential of animals. Most scientists had a positive attitude towards the scientific validity of EVM.
The majority of the animal scientists felt that the Indian traditional knowledge on EVM and other indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) is being eroded and hence animal scientists are prepared to advocate EVM resources if these are scientifically proven. More than half of the respondents stated that they have advised ethnoveterinary medicines to be used in certain cases. Although scientists are only a little aware about NGOs working on EVM/ITK, they are prepared to associate with NGOs in conducting research on and conserving EVM. Scientists unanimously agreed that legal protection should be provided for EVM. The study infers that the scientific community is becoming aware of the drawbacks and dangers of unprecedented technological advances that have caused ecological and environmental imbalance. In this context, scientists are willing to explore alternatives for sustainable development. Hence, the government and NGOs should make concerted efforts to exploit the hidden potential of the scientists to achieve sustainable development through indigenous devices.
Key words: survey; ethnoveterinary medicine; attitude of scientists; India.
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Akkara J. John
Action for Food Production (AFPRO) is a Delhi-based NGO that helps small local NGOs with various development activities. Realising the need for strengthening veterinary services in rural areas, it initiated in 1993 an alternate approach involving 48 NGOs from 10 states of India. With funding support from the Rajiv Gandhi Foundation and Catholic Relief Services, the project established a team of barefoot technicians (BFT) chosen by the respective NGOs. This paper reports the results of this project up to 1997.
AFPRO's training programme for the BFTs involves veterinary dispensaries of the Animal Health Department in the different states. Training covers animal health control, storage, transport, and use of vaccines, use of ethnoveterinary medicine, control of ecto- and endoparasites, first aid, dealing with cuts, burns, fractures, and other techniques. Emphasis is given on the use of ethnoveterinary medicine for most minor ailments and a kit is provided to the BFTs. Upon training and orientation, the BFTs are involved in creating awareness about livestock health management, health control, first aid, and treating minor ailments. AFPRO's training programme also includes refresher training.
Based on indicators such as control of disease outbreaks, mortality in small ruminants and poultry, and acceptance of vaccination and deworming programmes, the results obtained till 1997 are very encouraging. Farmers pay the costs of treatment and disease control and find the expenses reasonable. For minor ailments the BFTs prefer ethnoveterinary medicine.
It would be useful to study the ethnoveterinary practices of the different areas since there are regional variations in the use and popularity of medicines. These practices should be validated and promoted regionally.
Key words: village animal healthcare; ethnoveterinary medicine; barefoot technician; India.
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42. The use of indigenous veterinary remedies in Malawi
B.M.D. Kambewa
The objective of the study was to identify indigenous veterinary remedies which farmers use to treat livestock in Malawi. It was carried out as a case study survey among smallholder farmers in rural areas. Further work included screening tests on the effectiveness of medicines and evaluation of handling practices, namely extraction methods and storage time. Five non-dipping and two dipping areas were selected and visited several times between August 2 and September 17, 1995. A total of 53 livestock farmers were interviewed. These farmers learnt about the remedies from ancestors (93%) and through dreams (6%). Various leaves, roots, barks, or whole plant samples of 69 plants were collected from the farmers for botanic identification. This identification was done according to literature and at the National Herbarium in Zomba. In addition, farmers used animal parts, salt, soil, and dung as medicines. They also practised bloodletting, wound care, cauterisation, and obstetrics. Farmers reported that the medicines sometimes worked and other times not.
Screening tests were done under controlled conditions on tick and flea infestation of cattle and chicken respectively. Other tests were done on round worm infestation in goats. It was found that some of the medicines were highly effective. For example, those used against ticks and fleas. While others were not. For example, those used against worms. Evaluation of the handling practices was done on Rhipicephalus appendiculatus tick larvae using the extract from the tuber of Physostigma mesoponticum Taub in a larval packet method. The results showed that the paste could be used effectively twice. Its extract could be stored and used for two weeks at 21.5-24oC with a minimum of 22oC and a maximum of 30oC and at 85-98% relative humidity. The survey findings do not reflect the extent of the use of indigenous veterinary remedies in Malawi because the work was a case study. Also the tests were done under controlled conditions and there is need for field trials. Further investigations in this field are needed.
Key words: field research; laboratory research; clinical study; ethnoveterinary medicine; Rhipicephalus appendiculatus; ticks; Physostigma mesoponticum Taub; Malawi.
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K. Kansonia and M. Ansay
The objective of this work was to identify consistencies (and inconsistencies) in the use of medicinal plants. It started with a databank established by PRELUDE, an international network based in Belgium. The databank is devoted to traditional veterinary medicine of sub-Saharan Africa. To test the veterinary knowledge of rural people, we studied consistencies between botanical characteristics of medicinal plants, their veterinary usage, and similarities of usage with traditional human medicine. We found that this method is feasible and can be recommended in the investigation and evaluation of multiple data in databanks.
Applied to the old knowledge, selected across ages, this method both allows the identification of the most promising plants for research of new medicines and opens the way to the next phase, i.e., standardisation of the plants whose activities have been demonstrated. These plants can then be cultivated in gardens.
With this method, we have been able to determine the priorities of breeders and traditional practitioners in animal health in the Great Lakes region in Central Africa. Their priorities include diarrhoea, verminosis, East Coast Fever, mastitis, injuries, and wounds. We have identified plants that are "popular remarkable", "secret", or "commonly used in veterinary and human medicine". This ancestral knowledge is validated by documentary research and investigation of the plants' pharmacological and phytochemical properties. The example of remarkable plants used by traditional practitioners for treating diseases of the digestive tract shows that phytochemistry and pharmacology confirm the usage of more than 50% of these plants.
Once this work is accomplished, we must inform rural people of the activity (or lack thereof) of certain plants contained in their remedies. This recognition and above all, this exchange of information will help rural people to preserve the biodiversity of their environment.
New molecules identified through research on traditional knowledge are a starting point for modern science. This knowledge is the unique medical resource for more than 80% of the population of the world. It is necessary to evaluate it and to make it more homogeneous, more efficient, less mysterious, and more profitable to holders and users.
Key words: database; medicinal plants; ethnoveterinary medicine; validation; important livestock diseases; Great Lakes region; central Africa.
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Brigitte A. Kaufmann and Christian G. Hülsebusch
In the Horn of Africa, dromedaries are kept by pastoral people mainly for milk production and as transport animals. These arid and semiarid areas are characterised by scarce and highly variable forage and water availability, to which dromedaries are well adapted. As calf mortality is critical for herd productivity, causes of calf losses were investigated in three pastoral dromedary husbandry systems and the traditional veterinary knowledge concerning calf diseases was gathered. The present paper is based on results of a comparative analysis of dromedary husbandry systems of Rendille, Gabra, and Somali pastoralists in northern Kenya. Progeny history data of 1506 Rendille, 789 Gabra, and 1206 Somali camel calves born during 1980-1995 allowed us to calculate mortality rates and to establish respective loss causes.
Mortality up to weaning at 12 months of age was 27% in Rendille, 22% in Gabra, and 31% in Somali calves. Losses caused by diseases (LcD) account for 59%, 71%, and 82% of losses in Rendille, Gabra, and Somali calves respectively. Further causes are effects of drought, predation, and accidents. In each camel population, three major diseases are responsible for about two-thirds of LcD in calves. These are diarrhoea (33%), septicaemia (18%) and tick intoxication (15%) in Rendille; diarrhoea (21%), septicaemia (24%), and orf (25%) in Gabra; diarrhoea (23%), skin necrosis (23%) and ilgoff (28%) in Somali. Pastoralists' assessment of important calf diseases was established and their importance ranking, symptom description, and different traditional treatment methods are presented.
The study shows that herders' perception of disease importance matches well with the actual experienced losses due to disease in the past. Since only few diseases account for a major part of losses, specifically targeted activities are likely to have a high impact on improving the animal health situation. The knowledge of the pastoralists has to be considered a valuable resource when planning these activities, be it in the field of extension, delivery of animal health services, or epidemiological research.
Key words: field research; indigenous knowledge; animal husbandry; camel calves; causes of mortality; calf losses; diseases; Rendille; Graba; Somali; Kenya.
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45. Analgesic and therapeutic effects of electroacupuncture in dogs
N.H. Kelawala and Amresh Kumar
In China, acupuncture has been effectively used for ages to treat various ailments of both humans and animals. Electroacupuncture (EA) is an improvement of this technology. Acupuncture techniques are now gaining popularity outside of China but are not extensively used in India. Studies were carried out to observe analgesic and therapeutic effects in dogs.
Dogs were subjected to electroacupuncture stimulation of acupoints BL-23, GV-6, ST-36, SP-6, and GV-26 in group I while at ST-36, SP-6, TW-8, GV-6, LU-1, and TW-8 in group II. Analgesic effects for experimental abdominal pelvic surgery were recorded. The intensity of muscle relaxation and analgesia was greatest in animals of group II. After EA, heart rate and respiration rate significantly increased (p<0.05), whereas an increase in rectal temperature and decreases in tidal and minute volume remained insignificant (p>0.05). The recovery was quick, smooth, and uncomplicated in both groups.
Therapeutic effect of EA was studied in 16 dogs in which paresis was experimentally induced through axonotmesis of the sciatic nerve. The animals were randomly divided in two groups of eight dogs each. The experimental group was subjected to EA at acupoints ST-36, ST-32, BL-30, BL-67, GB-30, and GB-34 while the other group was kept as control. The animals of the EA group revealed better wound conditions and no operative infection after the operation compared to the control group. All animals were subjected daily to neurological examination. The dogs in the treatment group almost regained their normal state by day 30 and the signs of paresis disappeared completely. The animals of the control group remained abnormal up to 60 days after induction of paresis. The results indicate that EA can be used to treat paresis if there are no spinal cord disorders. The paper discusses the advantages and limitations of the EA technique for analgesia and treating paresis.
Key words: clinical study; electroacupuncture; analgesia; paresis; dog.
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46. Resuscitation of dogs by electroacupuncture at nasal philtrum point (GV 26)
N.H. Kelawala, Rajesh Tripathi, and Amresh Kumar
This investigation was carried out in twelve dogs divided into two groups of six animals each: in one group, the resuscitation effects of electroacupuncture (EA) at nasal philtrum (GV 26) point were studied. The other group was kept as control. All animals were anaesthetised with 30 mg/kg body weight of thiopentone sodium intravenously. The animals of the EA treatment group were subjected to EA at GV 26 point after 10 minutes of induction. Cardiopulmonary parameters such as heart rate, respiration rate, tidal volume, minute volume, and mean arterial blood pressure were studied for both groups. Animals of the EA treatment group showed a significant decrease in the duration of anaesthesia and time for complete recovery.
Key words: clinical study; electroacupuncture; dogs; resuscitation, anaesthesia.
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47. Effective ethnoveterinary practices for treating affections of skin and limbs in large animals
Kemparaja, B.K. Narainswami, and Vidya Kulkarni
This paper presents some ethnoveterinary practices employed to treat affections of skin and limbs. These treatments were learnt from animal owners and traditional healers (nati vaidyas) in India, tried on several animals and found to be quite effective.
Allergic oedema, malignant oedema, and eczema can be cured by local application and oral feeding of Aristolochia indica (eswari), Clerodendrum inerme (hisamdhari) and Andrographis paniculata (nela bevu) leaves. Mange and fungal infections of the skin can be treated with applications of Argemone mexicana (datturi) seed paste, Azadirachta indica (neem) stem decoction, or Thespesia populnea (huvarsi) tree latex. External parasites are killed by the application of crushed Annona squamosa (custard apple) and Leucas aspera (thumbe) leaves. Haemorrhages are controlled by applying any of the following: juice extract from the core of Musa paradisica (banana) stem, juice from leaves of Tridax procumbens (haddike), coffee, or turmeric powder. Udder oedema can be reduced by piercing Coix lacryma-jobi (kothi) thorns into the skin. Abscesses are made to mature by the application of finely ground white stone with butter or fomentation with warm common salt. Firing is used in young animals to increase disease resistance and is done over the joints to treat chronic affections of the joints. Fractures are immobilised with a strip of